Praxis (5236) - Biology > 3B2 Drivers of Evolution > Flashcards

3B2 Drivers of Evolution Flashcards

Explain factors contributing to evolution. Use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to determine equilibrium and ecosystem balance. (72 cards)

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1
Q

Define:

evolution

A

A change in the genetic makeup of a population over time.

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2
Q

Who proposed the theory of acquired characteristics?

A

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Theory of acquired characteristics is also known as Heritability of acquired characteristics or Lamarckian inheritance.

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3
Q

What does the theory of acquired characteristics propose?

A

Characteristics acquired by an organism during its lifetime can be passed on to its offspring.

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4
Q

Who proposed the theory of evolution through natural selection?

A

Charles Darwin

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5
Q

What is the theory of evolution?

A

Evolution is driven by natural selection, where organisms with traits best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those traits to future generations.

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6
Q

Which theory of evolution is more accepted and why?

A

Darwin’s theory of evolution is more accepted due to its focus on genetic variation and natural selection.

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7
Q

What are the principles of Darwinian evolution?

A
  • Populations, rather than individuals, evolve.
  • Evolution is possible because genetic variation exists within a population.
  • Individuals with different genotypes in the population reproduce at different rates.
  • Natural selection determines a differential rate of reproduction.
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8
Q

What is biogeography?

A

The study of how different species are distributed in different environments.

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9
Q

Who is considered the father of biogeography?

A

Alfred Wallace

Alfred Wallace’s voyages involved collecting specimens to sell to natural history museums and collections in England.

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10
Q

Who proposed the theory of evolution in the 1800s?

A

Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace

Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species in 1859, proposing the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived a similar theory, and both scientists jointly presented their ideas in 1858 to the Linnean Society of London.

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11
Q

How did Alfred Wallace contribute to the theory of evolution?

A

He provided independent findings on natural selection and collaborated with Darwin on scientific publications.

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12
Q

What is the Wallace Effect?

A

A hypothesis by Alfred Wallace stating that natural selection can lead to reproductive isolation and speciation.

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13
Q

What did Alfred Wallace believe about the adaptation and evolution of plants and animals?

A

That plants and animals adapted and evolved in response to their environment.

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14
Q

Define:

incipient species

A

Refers to a population that has been geographically isolated and has developed adaptations to its environment.

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15
Q

How does reproductive isolation occur?

A

When two populations of the same species are separated by some barrier, .preventing interbreeding or the production of fertile offspring..

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16
Q

Define:

genetic drift

A

It refers to random changes in allele frequencies in a population, especially significant in small populations.

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17
Q

What is the main difference between Wallace and Darwin’s theory of evolution?

A

Wallace believed that plants and animals evolved in response to their environment, while Darwin believed adaptations were driven by competition.

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18
Q

What did Alfred Wallace conclude?

A
  • The theory of evolution is driven by natural selection.
  • Natural selection is the process where organisms with traits best adapted to their environment survive to pass on those traits to future generations.
  • Wallace also hypothesized that natural selection can contribute to reproductive isolation of incipient species.

Alfred Wallace co-discovered the theory of evolution with Charles Darwin.

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19
Q

What does the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation describe?

A

The frequency of genotypes in a population.

Can be used to determine if the genetic makeup of a population is changing.

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20
Q

What are the five criteria that must be met for a population to be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

A
  • Random mating
  • Large population size
  • No migration between populations
  • No mutations
  • No natural selection
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21
Q

What does the equation 𝑝+π‘ž=1 represent in the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation?

A

The total frequency of dominant and recessive alleles in the population.

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22
Q

What does the equation 𝑝2+2π‘π‘ž+π‘ž2=1 represent in the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation?

A

The expected frequencies of genotypes in a population.

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23
Q

How do you calculate Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

A

To calculate Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:

  1. Find the frequency of a recessive genotype and set this value to q2.
  2. Square root both sides to get the frequency of passing on a recessive allele, q.
  3. Use the equation p + q = 1 to get p, the probability of passing the dominant allele.
  4. Then use p and q to find p2, the homozygous dominant genotype frequency, and 2pq, the heterozygous genotype frequency.

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24
Q

Define:

artificial selection

A

The biological process of humans selecting preferred visible traits in plants and animals and then creating a breeding program to produce offspring with those desired traits.

Artificial selection leads to adapting organisms to human needs and improving them faster than natural selection.

Examples:

  • Domestication of dogs from wolves.
  • Corn from teosinte.
  • Breeding of fainting or myotonic goats in the United States.

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25
What are the **two main methods** of artificial selection?
1. Breeder's approach 2. Environmental selection ## Footnote **Breeder's approach**: breeding only individuals with higher levels of the desired trait. **Environmental selection**: modifying the environment of the organism to favor individuals with a favorable trait adaptation.
26
What are the **negative effects** of artificial selection?
* Reduction of genetic diversity. * An increase in genetic disease caused by mutations, especially when inbreeding is employed.
27
What is the **main difference** between natural selection and artificial selection?
* **Natural** selection occurs over long time spans influenced by environmental pressures. * **Artificial** selection by humans can produce specific adaptations within a few years.
28
# Define: selective breeding
The human selection of a breeding pair of organisms to produce offspring with a particular trait with the goal of producing offspring that exhibit those traits. ## Footnote Examples: * Belgian Blue cattle for large lean muscle mass. * Border collies for herding behavior. * Tulips for unique color patterns and petal shapes. * Cruciferous vegetables from wild mustard species.
29
What is involved in the **selective breeding** of plants?
Carefully and manually pollinating plants with desired traits.
30
# Define: macroevolution
The large-scale change in a species over long periods of time, resulting in the divergence of new species.
31
# Define: macroevolutionary patterns
They help **explain the changes occurring within the gene pool** of a species over time.
32
# Define: microevolution
Refers to changes in gene frequency in a population from **one generation to the next**. ## Footnote Examines small changes over a short period of time. Can occur through: * Migration * Mutation * Genetic drift * Selection (natural and artificial)
33
# Define: stasis
A period of time in which no evolutionary changes occur.
34
What is the **difference** between microevolution and macroevolution?
* **Microevolution** refers to small changes over short periods of time within a population. * **Macroevolution** refers to larger changes over a long time scale within a population.
35
What are the **similarities** between microevolution and macroevolution?
* Both share the same processes of evolutionary change, including mutation, selection, migration, genetic drift, and isolation. * Each can result in shifting the allele frequency in populations over time.
36
What is the **impact** of microevolution over time?
It can result in large enough changes that will lead to **macroevolution and speciation**.
37
# Define: speciation
The emergence of new species as a result of macroevolution.
38
What are the **two types** of speciation that occur under divergent evolution?
* Allopatric speciation * Sympatric speciation
39
# Define: allopatric speciation
Occurs when two populations are separated by geographic barriers, leading to reproductive isolation and the creation of two distinct species. ## Footnote Also known as geographic speciation.
40
What are the **steps** of allopatric speciation?
1. Geographic barrier such as an ocean, mountain, or earthquake that physically separates populations of the original species. 2. The two populations accumulate heritable mutations and experience different selective pressures. 3. The two populations become increasingly divergent until reproductively incompatible. 4. Speciation is complete when interbreeding with fertile offspring is no longer possible.
41
# Define: sympatric speciation
Occurs when an ancestral species evolves into a new species without geographic separation.
42
What can cause sympatric speciation?
Different ecological niches or genetic changes in a subset of the ancestral species that reduce interbreeding within the population.
43
Explain the concept of **isolation mechanisms** in speciation.
They contribute to the divergence of new species during speciation. ## Footnote Examples of isolation mechanisms include geographic, ecological, and temporal isolation.
44
What can result in the **extinction** of a species?
If a species is **no longer suited to survive and reproduce** in its environment, it may go extinct.
45
What are the different **types of evolution** regarding how traits evolve in different species over time.
* Divergent evolution * Coevolution * Parallel evolution * Convergent evolution
46
# Define: divergent evolution
When an ancestral species spreads into multiple populations, niches, or geographical locations. ## Footnote Can occur based on the geography of the species or based on the niche of the species.
47
# Define: coevolution
Occurs between two or more species which are **distantly related** but influence each other's evolution through **natural selection**.
48
# Define: parallel evolution
Occurs when geographically distant and independent species **develop similar traits independently** due to similar evolutionary pressure or adaption to similar circumstances.
49
# Define: convergent evolution
Occurs when organisms of different origins evolve in similar environments and develop similar traits. ## Footnote Such as sharks and dolphins.
50
What are the **driving mechanisms of the evolution** of species?
The **flow of genes through sexual reproduction**, which generates genetic variation in offspring, and natural selection.
51
What are the **three different types** of evolution within a specific population?
Divergent, Convergent, and Parallel evolution.
52
Define **catastrophism** in evolution?
It suggests organisms are wiped out through **natural disasters**, making way for different organisms.
53
Define **gradualism** in evolution?
It is when a species **branches off into separate species**, slowly and gradually changing through time.
54
# Define: phyletic gradualism
It proposes that **evolution occurs slowly and steadily over time**, unlike punctuated equilibrium, which suggests rapid bursts of evolutionary change followed by long periods of stability.
55
Define **punctuated equilibrium** in evolution?
It is when organisms experience long periods of stasis and little evolution before periods of rapid speciation.
56
How does punctuated equilibrium **occur** when a group enters a new ecological niche?
Organisms may need to adapt to new ways of survival, increasing the rate of evolution and speciation.
57
What is the **founder effect**?
Occurs when a small group of individuals is separated from the ancestral population.
58
Describe the **bottleneck effect**.
This is a type of genetic drift where a population is **drastically reduced**, leading to a loss of genetic diversity and random changes in allele frequency due to population size reduction.
59
How is a **species** defined by the biological species concept?
A group of individuals capable of **mating and producing fertile offspring**.
60
What are the **three main stages** of speciation?
1. Separation 2. Divergence 3. Isolation
61
# Define: artificial speciation
The formation of distinct species as a result of selective breeding by scientists.
62
What are the two major types of **reproductive isolation**?
* Pre-zygotic barriers * Post-zygotic barriers
63
What are pre-zygotic barriers?
Reproductive barriers that occur before mating or fertilization. ## Footnote Examples: * Habitat isolation * Temporal isolation * Behavioral isolation * Mechanical isolation
64
# Define: habitat isolation
When two species **prefer different habitats**, making it unlikely for them to encounter each other.
65
# Define: temporal isolation
When closely related species have **different mating seasons or cycles**, preventing interbreeding.
66
# Define: behavioral isolation
When one species does not respond to the **mating ritual** of another species.
67
# Define: mechanical isolation
**Physical differences** in different species that result in an inability to mate.
68
What are post-zygotic barriers?
Barriers that keep hybrid zygotes from developing into healthy, fertile adults. ## Footnote Examples: * Gametic incompatibility * Zygotic mortality * Hybrid inviability
69
# Define: gametic incompatibility
The situation where **gametes are not compatible**, preventing the formation of hybrids.
70
# Define: zygotic mortality
When the zygote does not continue to develop and eventually dies.
71
# Define: hybrid sterility
The inability to produce viable, fertile offspring.
72
# Define: hybrid breakdown
When the direct hybrid offspring can reproduce, but their descendants are infertile or have reduced viability.
Praxis (5236) - Biology
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