1
Q
Define:
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
2
Q
Define:
Behavior
(as it relates to psychology)
A
observable actions
3
Q
Fill in the blanks:
______ ______ are defined as internal experiences, including feelings and thoughts.
A
Mental processes
4
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The ______-______ issue highlights the controversy of the contributions of genetics and experience in the development of a person’s traits and behaviors.
A
nature-nurture
Nature = genetics and heredity
Nurture = environment and experiences
5
Q
Fill in the blanks:
An example of the nature vs. nurture controversy is whether intelligence is ______ or derives from ______.
A
inherited; experience
6
Q
Define:
Genetic Predisposition
A
The increased likelihood to develop a specific trait or disease due to inherited genetics.
7
Q
Which perspective of psychology believed behaviors that contribute to survival and reproduction are naturally selected?
A
Evolutionary
Charles Darwin pioneered this perspective.
8
Q
Define:
Natural Selection
A
The principle that traits which support survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on to the next generation of a species.
9
Q
Fill in the blank:
The immoral use of selective breeding to improve a species is called ______.
A
Eugenics
10
Q
List three types of studies researchers use to better understand the interaction between genetics and environments.
A
- Family studies
- Twin studies
- Adoption studies
These types of studies allow researchers to either manipulate or isolate genetics and/or environment.
11
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The two main structures of the central nervous system are the ______ and ______ ______.
A
brain; spinal cord
12
Q
Which division of the nervous system consists of all the neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body?
A
Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is lateral to the central nervous system, much like peripheral field of vision is to the side of visual focus.
13
Q
Define:
Autonomic Nervous System
A
The division of the nervous system that controls the internal glands and organs that mostly work outside conscious control.
Autonomic looks a lot like the word automatic and the autonomic nervous system controls the automatic functions of the body.
14
Q
Fill in the blank:
The ______ nervous system controls voluntary muscle movement.
A
Somatic
15
Q
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
A
Like the gas pedal in a car, the sympathetic nervous system accelerates functions needed for responding quickly to stress, like breathing, heart rate, and pupil dilation, and slows functions not immediately necessary, like digestion.
16
Q
What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
A
The parasympathetic nervous system calms and relaxes the body, often returning it to homeostatic state after activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
17
Q
If someone stubs their toes, which type of neuron will carry that information from the body’s tissues toward the central nervous system?
A
Sensory neurons
18
Q
Fill in the blank:
______ neurons carry outgoing information to the body and stimulate muscle movement.
A
Motor
19
Q
What are the different functions of sensory and motor neurons?
A
- Sensory neurons carry information to the brain from the body.
- Motor neurons carry information from the brain to the body.
20
Q
Which type of neuron is only found in the central nervous system?
A
Interneurons
These neurons reside in the brain and spinal cord and communicate between sensory inputs and motor outputs.
21
Q
Define:
Reflex arc
A
The involuntary neural pathway controlling a reflex action.
This response bypasses the brain and allows rapid response to intense stimuli from the body.
22
Q
What is a neuron?
A
An individual nerve cell.
23
Q
Fill in the blank:
______ cells act to support the nervous system by providing support, nourishment, and protection for neurons.
A
Glial
24
Q
Define:
Action potential
A
A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Action potential is also known as a neural impulse.
25
# Fill in the blanks:
The process of neural communication both within themselves and between other neurons is called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
neural transmission
26
Which **principle of neural communication** states that neurons either reach a threshold of intensity and fire or they do not?
All-or-Nothing principle
## Footnote
This is also called the all-or-none response.
27
# Explain:
The process of depolarization
| (as it applies to neural communication)
It occurs when **positively charged ions** that are outside the axon **flood inside** where the negatively charged ions are located.
28
# Fill in the blank:
After a neuron fires, there is a brief moment when the positively charged ions inside the axon return outside. This is called the \_\_\_\_\_\_ period.
refractory
## Footnote
This returns the axon to resting potential and it is ready to fire again.
29
# Define:
Resting potential
A period of time when **positive ions are outside the axon** and **negative ions are inside the axon**.
## Footnote
The axon has the "potential" to fire with enough stimulation. Until it reaches that threshold, it is resting.
30
# Define and explain:
Reuptake
* Reuptake is the **reabsorption of a neurotransmitter** by the sending neuron.
* Occasionally, a sending neuron **releases more of a neurotransmitter** into the synaptic gap than can be absorbed by the receiving neuron. This causes the sending neuron to reabsorb the extra neurotransmitters.
31
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the level of depolarization a cell body must reach to produce an action potential.
Threshold
32
# Fill in the blanks:
An autoimmune disease resulting in the deterioration of the myelin surrounding the axon is called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
Multiple sclerosis
## Footnote
The immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin, disrupting nerve signals, leading to a loss of muscle control and slower reaction time.
33
What is **myasthenia gravis**?
An autoimmune disorder where the neurotransmitter **acetylcholine is blocked**, resulting in difficulties with muscle control, weakness, and possible paralysis.
34
# Fill in the blank:
Some neurotransmitters are \_\_\_\_\_\_, prodding the cell body to fire, and others are \_\_\_\_\_\_, which prevent the creation of a cell's action potential.
excitatory; inhibitory
## Footnote
Agonists increase a neurotransmitter’s action, while antagonists block or reduce it.
35
What is the main function of **agonists**?
Agonists bind to and activate a specific receptor to mimic or enhance the effects of natural neurotransmitters.
36
What does a **chemical antagonist** do?
Antagonists mimic neurotransmitters, bind to their receptor sites, and block transmission.
37
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
acetylcholine
* Function: motor movement, learning, and memory
* Problem: Alzheimer's disease linked to acetylcholine deficit
38
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
dopamine
* Function: motor movement and alertness
* Problems: Parkinson's disease (dopamine deficiency) and schizophrenia (excessive dopamine)
39
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
endorphins
* Function: pain control
* Problem: endorphins are released when pleasure areas of the brain are stimulated, so addictions are linked to endorphins
40
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
serotonin
* Function: mood control
* Problem: deficiency linked to symptoms of clinical depression
41
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
norepinephrine
* Function: helps control alertness and arousal
* Problem: undersupply can depress mood
42
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
glutamate
* Function: an excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
* Problem: oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
43
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
GABA
* Function: an inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms nerve activity and promotes relaxation
* Problem: undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
44
# What is the function of this neurotransmitter and what problem(s) are associated with too much and/or too little of it?
substance P
* Function: involved in pain perception
* Problem: oversupply can lead to chronic pain
45
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream to affect tissues and organs.
Hormones
## Footnote
After being released by glands, hormones travel through the bloodstream.
46
# Explain the function of:
adrenaline
A hormone that **prepares the body for stressful situations** by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar.
## Footnote
It is also called epinephrine.
47
Which **hormone** plays a role in lactation, childbirth, and social bonding?
Oxytocin
## Footnote
It is released by the pituitary gland.
48
# Contrast:
the hunger hormones ghrelin and leptin
| (as it pertains to appetite)
* **Ghrelin** is secreted by the stomach and stimulates appetite.
* **Leptin** is secreted by fat cells and decreases appetite.
49
# Define:
melatonin
| (as it pertains to sleep)
A hormone secreted by the pineal gland to **induce sleep**.
50
# Fill in the blanks:
Chemicals that can pass through the blood-brain barrier into the brain to alter perception, thinking, behavior, and mood are known as \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
psychoactive drugs
51
# Fill in the blank:
Psychoactive drugs that excite neural activity are classified as \_\_\_\_\_\_.
stimulants
52
What common **stimulant** increases **alertness and wakefulness** can lead to insomnia?
caffeine
53
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is a stimulant that creates a quick rush of euphoria that is followed by a crash as the drug's effects wear off.
Cocaine
54
Which **classification of drugs** reduce the activity of the central nervous system?
depressants
55
# Define:
alcohol
| (as it pertains to its impact on neural activity and the body)
A depressant that **slows brain activity and lowers inhibitions**, resulting in memory loss, organ damage, and impaired reactions.
56
What are **three** effects of the hallucinogenic class of drugs?
1. mood alteration
2. perception distortion
3. evoking sensory images in the absence of sensory input
57
# Fill in the blank:
The hallucinogen \_\_\_\_\_\_ causes distortions in perception, disinhibits, and may produce a euphoric high.
marijuana
58
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ depress neural activity and are typically used as pain relievers.
Opioids
## Footnote
The brain produces its own opioids, called endogenous opioids, like endorphins.
59
Which **opioid** produces a sensation of pleasure while suppressing pain and depresses the automatic functions of the neural systems?
Heroin
60
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is characterized by decreased responsivity to a drug.
Tolerance
61
# Define:
addiction
| (as it pertains to substance use)
**Compulsive substance use** that continues despite harmful consequences.
62
What occurs when one **discontinues** or greatly reduces addictive drug use?
**Withdrawal** which causes discomfort and distress experienced while the brain readjusts to the substance's absence.
63
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
electroencephalogram
| (EEG)
A **recording of the electrical activity** of the brain's surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
## Footnote
The EEG is used quite often in sleep studies.
64
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
Functional MRI
The fMRI is able to see **blood flow in the brain** during cognitive tasks, which suggests brain functioning. It also contains elements of the MRI, which gives structural information about the patient's brain.
65
# Describe the following method of studying the brain:
lesions
When brain lesions happen through damage or as a byproduct of a surgical procedure (to stop seizures, for example), **psychologists are able to see what functions are impaired** in a real world setting and glean how the damaged area of the brain works.
66
# Explain:
brain plasticity
The ability of the brain to **change and reorganize** after damage to build new pathways.
## Footnote
Although brain plasticity persists throughout the lifespan, it is strongest during infancy and childhood when the brain is forming rapidly.
67
# Define:
contralateral hemispheric organization
| (as it pertains to body functioning)
The **left hemisphere** of the brain controls the **right** side of the body and the **right hemisphere** of the brain controls the **left** side of the body.
68
# Fill in the blanks:
An area in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production is \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
Broca's area
## Footnote
Damage to this area results in Broca's aphasia - a speech impediment characterized by slow and stuttered speech production.
69
# Fill in the blanks:
An area in the left temporal lobe responsible for speech comprehension is \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
Wernicke's area
## Footnote
Damage to this area results in Wernicke's aphasia - a speech impediment characterized by an inability to comprehend written or spoken language, often leading to fluid nonsensical speech.
70
The innermost region of the brain responsible for **automatic survival functions** of the body.
brainstem
## Footnote
The brainstem is also the oldest region of the brain.
71
# Describe the part of the brain:
medulla
**It connects the brain to the spinal cord**. One of the most primitive parts of the brain, it helps control basic functions of life, like respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.
72
# Explain the function of the:
reticular activating system
A network of nerves that extend from the spinal cord into the brainstem and brain. It **filters sensory information** and aids in controlling arousal, attention, and the sleep-wake cycle.
73
# Describe the part of the brain:
cerebellum
Meaning *"little brain"*, the cerebellum looks like a second, smaller brain on the underside of our brain. Its primary functions include processing sensory input, coordinating balance and voluntary movement.
74
# Fill in the blanks:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ is the thin surface layer of interconnected neural cells. It is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
cerebral cortex
## Footnote
Think of the cerebral cortex as being like the bark of a tree.
75
List the **four** structures of the brain known as the limbic system.
1. thalamus
2. hypothalamus
3. hippocampus
4. amygdala
## Footnote
The limbic system is involved in memory and emotion.
76
# Describe the part of the brain:
thalamus
Known as the *"sensory control center"* of the brain, the thalamus **receives information from the spinal cord** and routes it to the appropriate part of the brain for further processing.
## Footnote
The only sensation that does not send its information to the thalamus for processing is smell.
77
# Describe the part of the brain:
hypothalamus
It monitors the body to **maintain homeostasis** and communicates with the master gland of the endocrine system (pituitary gland) to regulate hormone secretion.
78
# Describe the part of the brain:
hippocampus
It is essential for **processing explicit memories** into long-term memory.
## Footnote
It acts like a "save button" for memories.
79
# Describe the part of the brain:
amygdala
Controls **emotion and fear**.
80
# Describe the part of the brain:
pituitary gland
The *"master gland"* of the endocrine system, controlling other glands' **hormone release** including growth hormone.
81
Name the **four** lobes of the brain.
1. frontal
2. parietal
3. occipital
4. temporal
82
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ lobes control visual information processing and are located in the back of the brain.
occipital
83
Which lobes of the brain control **hearing/audition**?
Temporal lobes
## Footnote
These lobes are located on the sides of the brain, just above the ears.
84
Describe the **location and functions** of the parietal lobes.
* The parietal lobe is located at the **top and towards the rear of the brain**.
* It receives sensory input for **touch and controls** body positioning.
85
Which lobe of the brain allows for **higher order thinking**, executive functioning (planning and reasoning), and linguistic processing?
Frontal lobe
86
# Define:
Prefrontal cortex
Area of the brain in the forward portion of the frontal lobe that enables **executive functions** like **organization, planning, prioritizing, and self-monitoring**.
87
# Fill in the blanks:
The portions of the cerebral cortex not involved in sensory or motor functions are called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
association areas
## Footnote
These areas are involved in higher mental functions like learning, remembering, and speaking.
88
# Fill in the blanks:
Located in the parietal lobe behind the motor cortex, the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ receives touch sensations from the body.
somatosensory cortex
89
What **area** of the frontal lobe **sends messages to the body**, allowing for voluntary muscle movement?
motor cortex
## Footnote
The motor cortex is located at the very back of the frontal lobe.
90
# Fill in the blanks:
Split brain patients have had their \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ severed, usually to treat epilepsy.
corpus callosum
## Footnote
The corpus callosum acts as a sort of bridge between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing high speed communication and information exchange.
91
What does split brain research reveal about **hemispheric organization**?
The right and left hemispheres of the brain may specialize in **controlling different functions**.
## Footnote
The left hemisphere primarily controls language and speech production.
92
# Define:
consciousness
Our **awareness** of ourselves and our environment.
## Footnote
Sleep and wakefulness are two examples of states of consciousness.
93
# Name the term:
Our biological clock; 24 hour cycle of bodily rhythms.
circadian rhythm
## Footnote
In Latin - circa means about and diem means day.
Jet lag and shift work disrupt the circadian rhythm.
94
# Fill in the blanks:
NREM sleep occurs in stages \_\_\_\_\_\_ through \_\_\_\_\_\_ of sleep.
1; 3
95
* What are **hypnagogic sensations**?
* What **stage of sleep** do they take place?
* Feelings of **falling or floating weightlessly** while transitioning to sleep.
* Stage 1
96
What happens to the **length of NREM sleep** as a person progresses through the sleep cycle several times?
NREM Stages 1-3 **decrease** in length.
## Footnote
REM sleep generally increases in length as someone progresses through the sleep cycle several times.
97
Which stage of sleep is known as **paradoxical sleep**?
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep
98
Why is **REM sleep** sometimes referred to as paradoxical sleep?
Our brain waves resemble those observed when we are awake, but we are asleep.
99
# Fill in the blank:
Dreaming mostly occurs during \_\_\_\_\_\_ sleep.
REM
100
# Define:
REM rebound
It occurs when deprived of REM sleep over a period of time. It is the brain's **attempt to regain the missed REM cycles**.
## Footnote
This results in longer and more frequent REM stages with increasingly vivid dreams.
101
# Explain:
**two** theories for why we sleep
1. Sleep allows for the **consolidation of memories** accrued during the day.
2. Sleep allows the body and brain to **repair**, **rewire**, and **reorganize**.
102
What is **insomnia**?
A lack of sleep.
## Footnote
Can be either an inability to fall asleep or an inability to maintain sleep.
103
What is the defining characteristic of **narcolepsy**?
The **inability** to stay awake.
## Footnote
Narcoleptics experience irresistible urges to sleep at inappropriate times.
104
Which **sleep disorder** results in the acting out of the content of dreams while asleep, including talking and/or kicking and punching?
REM sleep behavior disorder
105
What is **sleep apnea**?
A sleep disorder in which a person **repeatedly stops breathing** during sleep.
106
Name a more common term for **somnambulism**.
sleepwalking
## Footnote
Sleepwalking is a sleep disorder in which a person walks or performs complex motor movements while in deep sleep.
107
What **theory of dreaming** claims that during sleep, the brain generates neuronal stimulation that the dreamer attempts to make sense of through creation of a story line?
The **activation-synthesis** theory
108
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ theory of dreams claims dreams assist with sorting through and fixing the experiences and memories of the day.
consolidation
109
What is the **difference** between sensation and perception?
* **Sensation** is what happens when the sensory modalities (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch) are activated.
* **Perception** is how the brain organizes and interprets that sensory information.
## Footnote
Sensation leads to perception.
110
# Fill in the blanks:
Processing of information that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain for further processing is called \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_ processing.
bottom-up
## Footnote
The information starts from the body (bottom) and works its way up to the brain.
111
What is **top-down processing**?
**Interprets** what the senses detect and uses information we already have in our brains to **fill in gaps** in the things we sense.
112
# Define:
transduction
| (as it pertains to sensation and energy processing)
The **conversion** from one form of energy to another.
## Footnote
This occurs with all senses. For instance, the retina transduces light wave energy to neural impulses which are then sent to the brain for processing.
113
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ has been reached when a person can detect the sensation 50 percent of the time.
Absolute threshold
## Footnote
Any detection of sensation below 50 percent is subliminal.
114
What is the **minimum amount of difference** between two stimuli needed to detect a change at least 50 percent of the time?
Just noticeable difference.
## Footnote
This is also sometimes called difference threshold.
115
What is **Weber's law**?
States that two stimuli must differ by a **constant minimum percentage** change to be perceived as different.
## Footnote
* 2 percent change for weight.
* 8 percent change for light intensity.
* 3 percent change for sound intensity.
116
# Define:
sensory adaptation
The diminished **sensitivity to sensory input** when that sensory input does not change over time.
## Footnote
For example, the brain might stop consciously sensing someone's watch if the pressure from the watch on the skin does not change.
117
What is **sensory interaction** and why is it important?
* Sensory interaction occurs when the sensory systems work together.
* This allows for the brain to be able to make sense of the world by **integrating all of the sensory information together**.
## Footnote
Sensory interaction allows someone eating a piece of pie to be able to see, smell, and taste the pie at the same time.
118
# Fill in the blank:
The distance from the top of one light or sound wave to the top of the next is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
wavelength
119
# Describe the part of the eye:
retina
The back inner surface of the eye containing **light receptors** (rods and cones) and **layers of neurons** that begin the processing of visual information.
120
What causes a **blind spot**?
The area where the optic nerve leaves the retina has **no photoreceptors** (rods or cones). Therefore, the brain receives no sensory information for that particular spot in the field of vision.
## Footnote
To "fill in" this spot, the brain uses surrounding visual information and details from the other eye. This results in an inability to detect our blind spots.
121
# Fill in the blanks:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ carries visual information from the eye to the brain.
optic nerve
## Footnote
This is also called the visual nerve.
122
# Describe the part of the eye:
lens
A transparent structure that **focuses light** entering through the pupil to the surface of the retina.
123
# Fill in the blank:
The process of the lens focusing the incoming light waves onto the retina is called \_\_\_\_\_\_.
accommodation
124
What causes **nearsightedness**?
Occurs when the **eye is too long** (front to back) and the **light focuses in front** of the retina.
125
What causes **farsightedness**?
Occurs when the **eye is too short** (front to back) and the **light focuses behind** the retina.
126
Name and describe the **two** types of photoreceptors in the eye.
The photoreceptors of the eye are located on the **retina**.
* **Rods**: detect black, white, and gray and are located in greater concentration in the periphery of the retina.
* **Cones**: detect color and are located in greater concentration in the center of the retina (fovea).
127
Describe **the** three color cones in the retina.
* **Blue**: detecting short wavelengths
* **Green**: detecting medium wavelengths
* **Red**: detecting long wavelengths
128
What is the **trichromatic theory**?
It is the theory that the cones in our retinas **perceive blue, green, and red**, and are **activated in combination** to create a perception of all the colors in the visual spectrum.
129
# Define:
opponent-process theory
| (as it applies to color vision)
Explains color vision by proposing we have **three opposing pairs** (red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black) that are processed by specialized cells. These cells either excite or inhibit each other, meaning **we can only see one color** from the pair at a time.
130
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ are temporary, illusory images that remain in your vision after the original image is gone.
Afterimages
## Footnote
Afterimages are caused by fatigue of photoreceptor cells, leading to neural adaptation.
131
The optic nerve is composed of axons from what type of **cells**?
ganglion cells
132
# Compare and contrast:
dichromatism and monochromatism
| (as it applies to color blindness)
* Both are types of **color blindness** resulting from a lack of cones in the retina.
* **Dichromatism** is caused when one color cone is lacking and only two are functioning.
* **Monochromatism** is caused when two color cones are lacking and only one is functioning.
133
# Fill in the blank:
A more technical term for face blindness is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
prosopagnosia
## Footnote
This occurs when there is a lack of feature detectors in the brain to detect the shape of faces, resulting in a person's inability to identify others solely by recognizing their face.
134
# Describe:
the cause and effect of blindsight
Occurs when a person has **damage to their visual cortex** in the brain. This leads to the inability to consciously report seeing objects but can still respond to stimuli in their visual environment.
## Footnote
This condition results as a malfunction of the brain, not a malfunction of the eye.
135
What **characteristics** of a sound wave determine what we actually hear?
* The **amplitude** of a sound wave determines the **loudness** of a sound (decibels).
* The **frequency** of a sound wave determines the **pitch** of a sound (hertz).
136
What is **place theory**?
Pitch processing is **activated spatially** on receptors in the cochlea, the same way that a piano's notes are arranged spatially. A higher pitch would move a hair cell on a certain part of the cochlea that a lower pitch would not.
137
What is **frequency theory**?
The rate (frequency) of nerve impulses traveling the auditory nerve is **perceived as different pitches** by the brain.
138
How is the volley theory **different** from the frequency theory of pitch perception?
The **frequency theory** believes that nerve impulses travel in **unison**, while the **volley theory** believes neurons **alternate** firing their message from the auditory nerve to the brain.
## Footnote
This theory helps to explain how very high frequency impulses can be transmitted to and perceived by the brain.
139
Explain **two** ways the brain locates the direction of a sound.
One ear will (1) **receive a more intense sound** and will (2) **receive the sound sooner**.
The brain compares differences in sound intensity and timing between the two ears to determine direction.
140
What kind of **deafness** is caused when one of the mechanisms used to move sound from the outer ear to the cochlea is damaged?
conduction hearing loss
## Footnote
An example of conduction hearing loss would be an extremely loud sound rupturing the eardrum.
141
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ hearing loss is caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or auditory nerve.
Sensorineural
## Footnote
This is the most common type of hearing loss and is sometimes called nerve deafness.
142
# Fill in the blank:
A more technical term for the sense of smell is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
olfaction
## Footnote
Comes from Latin, "olere" (to smell) and "facere" (to make) - to make a smell
143
What is **unique** about the processing of the sense of smell in the brain?
It is the only sense that **does not send** its sensory information to the **thalamus**.
144
# Define:
pheromones
| (as it pertains to olfaction and communication)
These are **chemical signals** released by members of a species to trigger certain **social and behavioral responses** for mating or alarm.
145
# Fill in the blank:
A more technical term for the sense of taste is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
gustation
146
List the **six** types of taste.
1. Sweet
2. Sour
3. Salty
4. Bitter
5. Umami (savory, meaty taste)
6. Oleogustus (taste of fat)
147
# Fill in the blanks:
The number of taste receptors on the tongue (also more commonly called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_) determines the sensitivity a person has to flavors.
taste buds
## Footnote
People with more taste buds may be classified as supertasters, those with relatively few taste buds would be classified as nontasters. Most people are classified as medium tasters.
148
# Fill in the blanks:
The touch sensation of "hot" is produced by the activation of \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_ receptors in the skin.
warm; cold
149
# Define:
gate control theory
| (as it pertains to pain perception)
This theory posits that the spinal cord has **neurological "gates"** that either **block or allow pain signals** to pass from the body to the brain for processing and perception.
150
Many people who have had an appendage amputated still report experiencing **sensations like pain** from the **missing limb**. What is this called?
Phantom limb sensations
151
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ sense is our balance sense; it monitors our head and body positioning.
Vestibular
## Footnote
The semicircular canals in the ear play a big part in this monitoring of our body positioning.
152
What is the **kinesthetic sense** in charge of?
It **keeps track of specific body parts** and where they are in space, using receptors in joints and muscles.
153
# Define:
synesthesia
| (as it pertains to sensory experience)
A neurological condition where one sensation **automatically triggers** the perception of another, **unrelated sensation**.
## Footnote
For example, chromesthesia is a form of synesthesia in which sounds evoke the perception of color.
