AP® Psychology > Unit 4 - Social Psychology and Personality > Flashcards

Unit 4 - Social Psychology and Personality Flashcards

Investigates how individuals think about, influence, and relate to others, while also examining personality theories, motivation, emotion, and individual differences. (89 cards)

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1
Q

Describe:

attribution theory

(as it pertains to explaining human behavior)

A

This theory posits that behaviors can be explained by attributing them to the situation (situational attribution) or to a person’s traits (dispositional attribution).

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2
Q

Explain:

why someone would speed in a car

using (1) dispositional attribution and (2) situational attribution.

A
  1. A person speeding is doing so because they are reckless and selfish.
  2. A person speeding is doing so because they are trying to get to the hospital quickly.

Dispositional = personal trait
Situational = environmental factor

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3
Q

Fill in the blanks:

The ______ ______ ______ states that when observing others’ behaviors, we overestimate the importance of disposition and underestimate the power of the situation.

A

fundamental attribution error

Judges are often thought of as being very serious and stern people, but they may only behave that way within the situation of a courtroom. They may act much more friendly and carefree around their family.

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4
Q

Define:

explanatory style

A

A way to explain why particular events happen to a person.

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5
Q

Identify and describe:

two types of explanatory style

A
  1. Optimistic: view positive events as being more permanent and pervasive and negative events as temporary.
  2. Pessimistic: view negative events as being more personal and permanent and positive events as external and temporary.
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6
Q

Fill in the blanks:

The ______-______ bias is demonstrated when we explain our own behavior as being more impacted by the situation and describe others’ behavior as being more dispositional in nature.

A

actor-observer

Why was I running down the hallway? I was going to be late for class.
Why was he running down the hallway? He is careless.

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7
Q

Define:

relative deprivation

A

Feelings of being deprived (or having less than) when comparing to other groups.

Relative deprivation refers to feelings of deprivation when people compare themselves to others and perceive themselves as worse off.

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8
Q

Fill in the blanks:

The ______-______ bias is demonstrated when we attribute success to internal factors and failures to the situation to protect our self-esteem.

A

self-serving

If a student does well on a test, they may attribute that success to their intelligence.
If a student does not do well on a test, they may attribute that failure to the teacher’s poor teaching.

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9
Q

What is a stereotype?

A

Generalized beliefs describing an entire group of people.

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10
Q

Define and contrast:

prejudice and discrimination

A
  • Prejudice means “prejudgment” and is usually a negative thought and attitude toward a group.
  • Discrimination is a negative behavior or action toward a group.

Believing a particular race or ethnicity is superior to another is prejudice.
Creating laws that favor one race or ethnicity over another is discrimination.

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11
Q

Fill in the blanks:

Stereotypes reduce ______ ______ by decreasing the amount of thought and effort it takes to understand another group of people.

A

cognitive load

If someone believes everyone who supports a rival sports team is rude, it reduces the cognitive load it would take to actually get to know the opposing fans.

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12
Q

What are automatic and unconscious beliefs and feelings held about another group of people?

A

implicit attitudes

If someone doesn’t realize they have certain biases against another group of people, this indicates an implicit attitude.

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13
Q

State the term for the belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

A

just-world phenomenon

This belief is easily disproven though, because people in poverty don’t deserve to be in poverty and every wealthy person doesn’t deserve to be rich.

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14
Q

Fill in the blanks:

Believing that everyone who is not like us (the ingroup) is exactly alike is ______-______ ______ ______.

A

out-group homogeneity bias

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15
Q

Fill in the blanks:

Believing our group is superior to the outgroup is ______ ______.

A

ingroup bias

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16
Q

Define and describe:

ethnocentrism

A

The tendency to judge other cultures based upon standards and values of one’s own culture. This often leads to views of superiority of one’s own culture over other cultures.

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17
Q

Define and describe:

the foot-in-the-door phenomenon

(as it pertains to persuasion)

A

This phenomenon says in order to persuade someone, start out with a small request and slowly build up to a larger request.

If someone wants their curfew extended by an hour, they should begin by asking for an extra 15 minutes to get an initial “yes” and then slowly ask for more time.

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18
Q

Define and describe:

the door-in-the-face phenomenon

(as it pertains to persuasion)

A

This phenomenon says in order to persuade someone, make a very large request and then slowly work back to what was originally wanted.

If someone wants their curfew extended by an hour, they should begin by asking for two hours and then work their way back to asking for only an hour. This framing makes the hour of extra curfew seem like not too much when compared to the initial two hour request.

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19
Q

Fill in the blanks:

______ ______ theory states that we act to reduce discomfort we feel when we have two competing thoughts by changing either our thoughts or actions.

A

Cognitive dissonance

Knowing that exercise is good for our health, someone who feels bad because they have avoided lifting weights may reduce that tension by stating that they will work out twice as much tomorrow or that exercise isn’t actually that important.

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20
Q

Fill in the blanks:

The ______ ______ model suggests that actively processing information and expanding on its meaning increases our chances of remembering it.

A

elaboration likelihood

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21
Q

Compare and contrast:

  • peripheral route to persuasion
  • central route to persuasion
A
  • Both are means to influence or persuade someone to act.
  • Peripheral route to persuasion uses incidental cues to influence.
  • Central route to persuasion uses evidence and argument to influence.

Having a celebrity endorse a product as a way to influence people’s purchasing decisions is peripheral route to persuasion.
Using evidence and statistics to show why a product is better than another to influence people’s purchasing decisions is central route to persuasion.

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22
Q

Fill in the blanks:

Believing that athletes and celebrities are especially intelligent or trustworthy is the ______ ______.

A

halo effect

This effect plays a major part in peripheral route to persuasion.

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23
Q

Fill in the blanks:

A society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behaviors are ______ ______.

A

social norms

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24
Q

Define:

conformity

(as it pertains to social behaviors)

A

Occurs when someone adjusts their behaviors to reflect a group standard.

Wearing clothing to align with what others are wearing is one example of conformity.

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25
When are people more likely to **conform**?
* When they feel incompetent or insecure. * When they are in a group with at least three other people. * When they are in a group in which everyone else agrees. * When they admire the group's status. * When they have not made a prior commitment to any response. * When they know that others will observe their behavior. * When they are from a culture that encourages respect for social standards.
26
People may conform because of normative social influence or informational social influence. Describe these **two** concepts.
* **Normative social influence** occurs when one wants to gain social approval. * **Informational social influence** occurs when one believes others' opinions about reality. ## Footnote Conforming because you want to be liked is normative. Conforming because you trust others' expertise is informational.
27
# Fill in the blank: Complying with an order or command is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
obedience
28
When are we more likely to be obedient to an **authority figure**?
* The person giving orders is close at hand. * The person is perceived to be a legitimate authority figure. * The person is from a prestigious institution. * The victim is depersonalized or at a distance. * There are no role models for defiance of the authority figure.
29
What is **social facilitation**?
When a person performs better on **simple or well-learned tasks** in the presence of others. ## Footnote This group behavior usually occurs when someone is confident in their abilities.
30
# Fill in the blanks: An overestimation to the extent to which others agree with us is called the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ effect.
false consensus
31
# Describe: deindividuation | (as it pertains to group behaviors)
A **loss of self-awareness and self-restraint** in group situations that lead to a feeling of anonymity. ## Footnote Rioting behavior results from deindividuation. Being in a large group decreases individuality and people take on the characteristics of the group.
32
# Fill in the blanks: \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ occurs when people exert less effort in a group.
Social loafing ## Footnote This is especially prevalent when the group is working toward a common goal and individual efforts seem dispensable.
33
What is **group polarization**?
The **strengthening** of a group's beliefs through **discussion** within the group. ## Footnote People will often leave a meeting of common political beliefs with more polarizing viewpoints.
34
# Fill in the blank: The desire for harmony in a group may lead to \_\_\_\_\_\_.
groupthink ## Footnote Groupthink is especially likely when the group has a strong leader and dissent is discouraged.
35
# Fill in the blanks: Cultures that value the success of the community over individual goals are \_\_\_\_\_\_. Cultures that value individual freedoms and self-reliance are \_\_\_\_\_\_.
collectivist; individualistic ## Footnote Western cultures tend to be more individualistic while many Asian cultures are more collectivist.
36
# Describe: multiculturalism | (as it pertains to societal focus)
Societies that are multicultural place a value on the coexistence of **diverse cultural and ethnic characteristics**.
37
# Define and provide examples: prosocial behaviors | (as it pertains to mental processes and behaviors)
Actions that **intend to help** others, examples include **volunteering**, **donating money**, and **comforting** others during a time of need. ## Footnote Research indicates that some people demonstrate prosocial behavior in reaction to perceived social debt.
38
What **social behavior effect** posits that we are more likely to think favorably about a stimulus with increased exposure to it?
mere exposure effect ## Footnote Businesses know that showing the same ad to someone several times increases the chance they will click the link or purchase that item.
39
# Fill in the blank: Truly selfless behaviors for others often without regard for one's own safety is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
altruism ## Footnote An important aspect of altruism is that the helper expects nothing in return.
40
# Describe: important aspects of the bystander effect
* A person is less likely to help in the presence of other people (bystanders). * It results from a diffusion of responsibility and a feeling of "I don't need to help because someone else will." ## Footnote If no one stops to pick up a piece of trash in the hallway because everyone assumes others will do it, all are experiencing the bystander effect.
41
The reciprocity norm and social-responsibility norm are two theories that explain why someone is likely to help others. **Describe these concepts**.
* The **reciprocity** norm states that we should return help and not harm to those who have helped us in the past. * The **social-responsibility** norm states there is a societal expectation to assist others if you have the means.
42
# Fill in the blanks: \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ arise when people choose short-term gains at the expense of long-term success of a group.
Social traps ## Footnote Overfishing a pond is an example of a social trap. The more the pond is fished in the short-term, the fewer fish will be available for spawning and fishing in the future.
43
# Define: self-fulfilling prophecy
Beliefs that lead to their own fulfillment. ## Footnote Not studying for a test because one feels they are going to fail will probably lead to a poor grade.
44
One manner for resolving conflict is to give competing sides **superordinate goals**. What is this?
**Shared goals by two conflicting groups** that can only be successfully completed with **cooperation**. ## Footnote This helps to promote peace among enemies.
45
# Fill in the blanks: \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ psychologists apply psychology's principles in the workplace to maximize productivity and avoid employee burnout.
Industrial-organizational | (I/O)
46
# Fill in the blank: An individual's unique pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
personality
47
Which **theory of personality** believes unconscious processes create a person's personality?
Psychodynamic theory
48
**Differentiate** between the preconscious and unconscious mind.
The **preconscious** mind contains thoughts that are not readily available, but can move into the conscious mind with memory association. The **unconscious** mind contains unacceptable thoughts and feelings that have been repressed and are not accessible.
49
# Describe: the ego | (as it pertains to personality development)
The ego is the mostly conscious and executive part of personality that works to **make practical and rational decisions**. ## Footnote The ego defends itself with defense mechanisms.
50
# Fill in the blanks: Because we live in a civilization with certain societal norms, we display \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ to protect our ego to reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality.
defense mechanisms
51
# Define: the defense mechanism of repression
Banishing **distressing and anxiety-arousing** thoughts and feelings into the unconscious. ## Footnote Repression underlies all other defense mechanisms.
52
# Define: the defense mechanism of denial
**Refusing to believe** potentially painful thoughts and realities. ## Footnote A person may be in denial over rumors of how their partner is treating them.
53
# Define: the defense mechanism of displacement
Redirecting **aggressive impulses** toward less threatening objects or people. ## Footnote A person may displace their feelings of anger towards their parents by punching their pillow in their room.
54
# Define: the defense mechanism of projection
Attributing one's own **unwanted impulses** to someone else. ## Footnote Someone feeling insecure about their looks may criticize others' appearance.
55
# Define: the defense mechanism of rationalization
Offering **self-justifying explanations** of behavior to mask more damaging unconscious reasons. ## Footnote Saying that you work better under pressure to rationalize procrastination.
56
# Define: the defense mechanism of reaction formation
Unconsciously **replacing unacceptable feelings** or thoughts with their opposite. ## Footnote A person demonstrating exaggerated friendliness towards another person they don't care for.
57
# Define: the defense mechanism of regression
Reverting to more **childlike behavior** to cope with stress and anxiety. ## Footnote A teenager throwing a tantrum when they don't get what they want.
58
# Define: the defense mechanism of sublimation
Transforming impulses that are **unacceptable in society** into socially valued motives. ## Footnote Taking overly aggressive impulses and channeling that into becoming a boxer.
59
Why do psychodynamic psychologists use **projective tests**?
It provide vague stimuli to **elicit projection** of one's preconscious and unconscious thoughts and feelings. ## Footnote The Rorschach inkblot test and Thematic Apperception Test are two common projective tests.
60
# Fill in the blanks: According to humanistic psychology, personality focuses on \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ tendencies as motivating factors for growth.
unconditional regard; self-actualizing
61
# Describe: unconditional regard
Demonstrating an attitude of **complete acceptance without judgment** for a person.
62
# Describe: self-actualizing tendencies
The innate drive to live up to one's potential and **strive to be the best person** they can be.
63
# Fill in the blank: \_\_\_\_\_\_ theories believe that personality involves a set of lasting characteristics that lead to predictable human responses.
Trait
64
What are the big **five** personality traits?
1. Conscientiousness 2. Agreeableness 3. Neuroticism (emotional stability) 4. Openness 5. Extraversion ## Footnote Remember the acronym CANOE or OCEAN.
65
# Describe: how personality inventories and factor analysis evaluate personality traits
Personality inventories are questionnaires **assessing a wide range of characteristics** in order to measure traits. After a person completes a personality inventory their answers are aggregated using **factor analysis**. This is a procedure that isolates clusters of questions that **assess and reveal a person's traits**.
66
# Fill in the blanks: The \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ theory of personality believes that reciprocal determinism shapes personality.
social-cognitive
67
What is **reciprocal determinism**?
A belief that behavioral factors, environmental factors, and personal factors **all work together** to influence behavior and personality. ## Footnote An example: A person's fear of flying (personal factor) makes them act nervous during a flight (behavioral factors), which makes other people fearful (environmental factors). This makes the fearful person even more anxious, which continues the cycle.
68
# Define: self-esteem
Our **overall feelings** of high or low self-worth.
69
# Define: self-efficacy
Our sense of **competence** and **effectiveness**.
70
# Define: self-concept
Beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes you hold about yourself that answer the question **"who am I?"**.
71
# Define: motivation
A need or desire that serves to **energize** or **direct behavior**.
72
Which **theory of motivation** posits that physiological needs put stress on the body and that we are motivated to reduce this negative experience?
Drive-reduction theory ## Footnote For example, hunger is a drive that causes an arousal that needs to be reduced through eating.
73
# Fill in the blank: \_\_\_\_\_\_ theory states that many non-human animals are driven by innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to certain stimuli.
Instinct ## Footnote Spiders instinctually know how to spin intricate webs to catch prey without being taught how to do so.
74
What does the **arousal theory** of motivation state?
States that there is an **optimum level of arousal** (or: alertness and activation) at which performance on a given task is optimal. ## Footnote Some tasks (for example, reading) need a low level of arousal. Some tasks (for example, playing sports) require a high level of arousal.
75
What is the **Yerkes-Dodson** law and on what theory of motivation is it based?
States that increased arousal improves performance, but only up to a point. Any additional arousal above what is needed to complete a task harms performance. In general, **moderate arousal leads to optimal performance**. This law is based on the **arousal theory of motivation**. ## Footnote For example, if someone has an exam, moderate arousal will assist them with performing optimally. Increased arousal, usually caused by stress and anxiety, will only impede their ability to perform optimally.
76
Which **theory of motivation**, supported by evolutionary psychology, contends that the learning of species-specific behavior motivates organisms to do whatever is necessary to ensure their survival?
Instinct theory ## Footnote Non-human animals are influenced and motivated by instincts.
77
# Fill in the blanks: According to the \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ theory, people's level of need for variation is based on motivation.
sensation seeking ## Footnote People who love new and intense experiences or avoid repetition demonstrate sensation seeking.
78
# List and describe: the **four** types of sensation seekers | (according to the sensation seeking theory)
1. Experience seeking - desire for novel experiences 2. Thrill or adventure seeking - an attraction to somewhat dangerous activities 3. Disinhibition - desire a loss of self-control 4. Boredom susceptibility - an inability to tolerate the absence of external stimuli
79
# Fill in the blanks: According to \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ theory, the choices we make cause conflict that we are motivated to resolve.
Lewin's motivational conflicts ## Footnote Approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance are three types of conflict according to this theory.
80
# List and describe: **three** types of conflict according to Lewin's motivational conflict theory.
1. **Approach-approach**: choosing between two appealing options 2. **Avoidance-avoidance**: choosing between two unpleasant options 3. **Approach-avoidance**: one option has both appealing and unpleasant aspects ## Footnote Examples of each: 1. Approach-approach - pizza or tacos 2. Avoidance-avoidance - completing chores or homework 3. Approach-avoidance - Wanting to drink milk but know you are lactose intolerant
81
# Fill in the blanks: \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ theory posits that people are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic motivators to optimize performance and well-being.
Self-determination ## Footnote Self-determination theory states we are motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness.
82
# Contrast: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.
* **Intrinsic motivation**: A motivation to perform a behavior for its own sake. * **Extrinsic motivation**: A motivation to perform a behavior to receive a reward or avoid a punishment. ## Footnote We are usually motivated intrinsically by hobbies and motivated extrinsically by tasks that we may not prefer to complete.
83
How do the hormones **leptin and ghrelin** influence hunger motivation?
* Leptin is secreted by **fat cells** and tells the brain to increase metabolism and **decrease hunger**. * Ghrelin is secreted by the **stomach** and **increases hunger**.
84
What **two** structures of the brain chiefly influence the release of hunger hormones?
1. The hypothalamus 2. The pituitary gland ## Footnote The hypothalamus regulates hunger in order to maintain homeostasis. The pituitary gland (the master gland) is triggered by the hypothalamus to stimulate other glands of the endocrine system to release their hunger hormones.
85
List **three** external factors that influence hunger.
1. The presence of food 2. The time of day 3. Social gatherings
86
**Emotions** are responses that are comprised of three possible characteristics. Name and explain the **three** characteristics.
1. **Physiological arousal**: internal responses 2. **Behavioral responses**: conscious bodily responses 3. **Conscious experience** (cognitive appraisal): an awareness of the experience ## Footnote If you see a bear, you may experience fear. You would recognize the bear and consider what that means (conscious experience or cognitive appraisal). Your heartbeat would increase (physiological arousal). You would probably quickly move away (behavioral response).
87
# Fill in the blanks: The \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ states that facial muscles trigger corresponding feelings.
facial feedback effect ## Footnote This theory believes that if you want to be happy, smile and the facial muscles utilized will trigger the emotion of happiness.
88
# Fill in the blanks: The \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ theory of emotion posits that positive emotions broaden one's awareness, making novel and creative thoughts and ideas more numerous.
broaden-and-build ## Footnote Positive and happy workplaces often lead to more creativity and productivity. This makes use of the broaden and build theory.
89
Culture influences emotional expression and has different elicitors and display rules. **What are elicitors and display rules**?
* **Elicitors**: environmental triggers of emotions * **Display rules**: etiquette for how, when, and where to show emotions ## Footnote For example, Chinese and Japanese display rules typically prioritize emotional control and stability. In comparison, Latin American cultures display rules allow for more emotional displays of emotion.
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