A-Level History (AQA) > 2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 > Flashcards

2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 Flashcards

Analyse the political, social and ideological transformations of the French Revolution and Napoleonic era. (161 cards)

Study These Flashcards
1
Q

Who became King of France in 1774?

A

Louis XVI

Louis XVI inherited a monarchy with deep structural strengths but serious long-term weaknesses.

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2
Q

What name is given to the political and social system of pre-revolutionary France?

A

Ancien Régime

This term refers to the monarchy, privileges and social order before 1789.

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3
Q

Fill in the blank:

Before 1789, France was governed under the _____ Régime.

A

Ancien

The term is used for the old order destroyed by the Revolution.

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4
Q

What type of monarchy existed in France under Louis XVI?

A

Absolutism

In theory the king held sovereign authority, though in practice government faced many constraints.

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5
Q

What was one major strength of absolutism in France before 1789?

A

Strong royal authority in theory

The Crown remained the formal centre of government, law and administration.

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6
Q

What was one major weakness of absolutism in France before 1789?

A

Inefficient and unequal administration

Privilege, overlapping jurisdictions and poor finances limited effective rule.

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7
Q

True or False:

Under the Ancien Régime, all social groups in France paid taxes equally.

A

False

Privilege meant that tax burdens fell very unevenly, especially on the Third Estate.

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8
Q

Which estate in France carried most of the direct tax burden before 1789?

A

The Third Estate

Peasants, workers and the bourgeoisie bore many of the monarchy’s financial demands.

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9
Q

Which two estates enjoyed important privileges under the Ancien Régime?

A

The First and Second Estates

The clergy and nobility had exemptions and special rights that caused resentment.

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10
Q

What was one major social division in France before 1789?

A

Privileged versus unprivileged orders

The contrast between privilege and burden was central to revolutionary anger.

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11
Q

Why did privileges create political tension before 1789?

A

They protected inequality

Privilege made reform harder and fuelled resentment among those who paid most.

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12
Q

Fill in the blank:

Before 1789, resentment focused heavily on noble and clerical _____.

A

privileges

These were seen as unfair at a time of financial and social strain.

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13
Q

What broader problem weakened the French monarchy before 1789?

A

Financial crisis

The Crown struggled to raise enough revenue and reform the tax system.

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14
Q

Who were the Enlightened philosophes?

A

Writers and thinkers criticising old ideas

They challenged traditional authority and promoted reason, liberty and reform.

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15
Q

What did many philosophes criticise in eighteenth-century France?

A

Arbitrary authority

They attacked abuses of power, privilege and intolerance.

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16
Q

How influential were Enlightenment ideas in France before 1789?

A

Significant but uneven

Such ideas influenced educated opinion more than the whole population.

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17
Q

True or False:

Enlightenment ideas were equally understood and accepted by all people in France before 1789.

A

False

Their strongest influence was among educated elites rather than the entire population.

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18
Q

What were salons?

A

Gatherings for intellectual discussion

Salons helped spread new ideas among educated and fashionable circles.

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19
Q

Why were salons important to the spread of Enlightenment ideas?

A

They circulated debate among elites

They connected writers, patrons and political opinion.

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20
Q

What foreign event encouraged French criticism of monarchy and liberty before 1789?

A

The American Revolution

French involvement in America exposed elites to ideas about rights and representative government.

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21
Q

How did the American War of Independence affect France?

A

It spread ideas and worsened finance

It inspired reformers while adding to the monarchy’s debt.

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22
Q

Fill in the blank:

French support for the American War of Independence increased royal _____.

A

debt

The war’s financial cost deepened the Crown’s problems.

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23
Q

Which minister tried early economic and financial reform under Louis XVI?

A

Turgot

Turgot sought economies and reform but faced strong opposition.

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24
Q

Which finance minister became associated with publishing royal accounts and seeking confidence?

A

Necker

Necker tried to restore credit, though his methods did not solve the structural crisis.

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25
Which minister proposed wider **tax reform** before the Revolution and then summoned the Assembly of Notables?
Calonne ## Footnote Calonne believed major reform was needed to rescue royal finance.
26
Why did reform attempts under **Turgot, Necker and Calonne** fail to solve the crisis?
Privilege blocked reform ## Footnote Those with influence often resisted changes that threatened exemptions and advantage.
27
# True or False: The monarchy solved its **financial problems** completely before the Estates-General met.
False ## Footnote By 1789 the fiscal crisis had become one of the regime’s gravest weaknesses.
28
What was the **Assembly of Notables**?
A gathering of leading elites ## Footnote Louis XVI’s government consulted them in 1787 over proposed reforms.
29
Why was the **Assembly of Notables** important in 1787?
It exposed weakness at the top ## Footnote Its refusal to accept reform showed that the monarchy could not easily impose solutions.
30
What did political developments from 1787 to 1789 reveal about **royal authority**?
It was breaking down ## Footnote Conflict over reform turned a financial crisis into a political crisis.
31
# Fill in the blank: By May 1789, a financial crisis had become a wider _\_\_\_\_ crisis.
political ## Footnote The monarchy could no longer command obedience in the old way.
32
Which representative body was summoned in 1789 for the first time since 1614?
The Estates-General ## Footnote Its meeting opened the revolutionary crisis.
33
What was the condition of France by the meeting of the **Estates-General**?
Politically tense and economically strained ## Footnote Social grievance, harvest problems and distrust of government intensified instability.
34
What major sequence of events from May to October 1789 launched the Revolution?
The Revolution of 1789 ## Footnote This period saw decisive change in both Paris and Versailles.
35
Which royal residence was central to events in the **early Revolution**?
Versailles ## Footnote Many crucial confrontations in 1789 took place around the king and the Estates-General there.
36
Which city became the revolutionary centre of **popular action** in 1789?
Paris ## Footnote Parisian crowds repeatedly shaped the direction of events.
37
What was the **Great Fear**?
Rural panic and unrest ## Footnote In summer 1789 fear of conspiracy and attack helped trigger peasant violence.
38
# True or False: The early Revolution in 1789 was confined entirely to **Versailles** and did not spread into the countryside.
False ## Footnote Rural unrest was a major part of the revolutionary crisis.
39
What were the **October Days**?
A popular march to Versailles ## Footnote Parisian crowds forced the king and royal family back to Paris in October 1789.
40
# Fill in the blank: The October Days forced Louis XVI to leave Versailles for _\_\_\_\_.
Paris ## Footnote This shift placed the king under closer popular and political pressure.
41
What was the main result of the **October Days** for the monarchy?
The king lost independence ## Footnote The king was now physically and politically more vulnerable in Paris.
42
What political goal did revolutionaries pursue after 1789?
Constitutional monarchy ## Footnote They tried to limit the king’s power within a new legal framework.
43
What major church reform was introduced in the **constitutional phase**?
State control of the Church ## Footnote The Revolution reorganised the Church and reduced papal influence in France.
44
What kind of **reforms** were introduced besides church changes between 1789 and 1792?
Judicial and administrative reforms ## Footnote Revolutionaries tried to create a more rational and uniform system.
45
What economic and social aim shaped **early revolutionary reform**?
Ending feudal privilege ## Footnote Reformers wanted a freer and more equal social order under law.
46
# True or False: The constitutional monarchy left the old system of **privilege** completely untouched.
False ## Footnote Many of the Revolution’s early measures attacked privilege and hierarchy.
47
What were **political clubs**?
Groups for organised political debate ## Footnote They became increasingly influential in shaping revolutionary opinion.
48
Why were **political clubs** important after 1789?
* Mobilised public opinion for revolution * Organised political pressure on government (protecting gains, monitoring abuses) * Spread revolutionary ideas nationwide (through affiliated clubs across France) ## Footnote Clubs helped spread ideas, coordinate activists and radicalise politics.
49
Which event shattered confidence in **Louis XVI** in 1791?
The Flight to Varennes ## Footnote The king’s attempted escape raised doubts about his loyalty to the Revolution.
50
# Fill in the blank: Louis XVI’s failed escape in 1791 is known as the Flight to _\_\_\_\_.
Varennes ## Footnote It damaged trust in the constitutional monarchy.
51
What was the political effect of the **Flight to Varennes**?
It weakened support for the king ## Footnote Many revolutionaries now believed the king could not be trusted.
52
What happened at the **Champs de Mars** in 1791?
A radical demonstration was suppressed ## Footnote The event showed growing tension between moderates and radicals.
53
Why was the **Champs de Mars** demonstration significant?
It exposed divisions in the Revolution ## Footnote Revolutionary unity was breaking down over the future of the monarchy.
54
How did **war** affect the Revolution after 1792?
It intensified radicalisation ## Footnote War increased fear, suspicion and pressure for stronger government.
55
# True or False: War helped stabilise the **constitutional monarchy** and reduce political extremism.
False ## Footnote War increased instability and pushed the Revolution in a more radical direction.
56
Who were the **sans-culottes**?
Radical urban common people ## Footnote They were influential in Parisian politics and pushed for harsher action against enemies.
57
How did the **sans-culottes** contribute to the collapse of constitutional monarchy?
They drove radical pressure from below ## Footnote Their activism helped push the Revolution beyond moderate constitutional limits.
58
# Fill in the blank: Radical pressure in Paris came strongly from the _\_\_\_\_-culottes.
sans ## Footnote They became associated with popular militancy and social demands.
59
What were the **September Massacres**?
Killings of suspected enemies in 1792 ## Footnote They reflected fear of treason, invasion and internal conspiracy.
60
What political body was elected after the **fall of the monarchy**?
The National Convention ## Footnote It replaced the earlier constitutional framework and presided over the Republic.
61
What new form of government was established in September 1792?
A Republic ## Footnote The monarchy was abolished and sovereignty was redefined.
62
What major issue dominated early debate in the **new Republic**?
The fate of the king ## Footnote Deciding whether Louis XVI should live or die became a defining question.
63
# True or False: The execution of **Louis XVI** was agreed without serious debate.
False ## Footnote It followed intense argument over legality, necessity and the future of the Revolution.
64
Why was **Louis XVI** executed?
He was seen as a threat to the Revolution ## Footnote Many deputies believed the Republic could not survive while he lived.
65
# Fill in the blank: The execution of Louis XVI marked a decisive break with _\_\_\_\_.
monarchy ## Footnote It made reconciliation with the old order far less likely.
66
What internal rising became a major threat to the Republic during the Terror?
The Vendée rising ## Footnote This revolt revealed the depth of resistance to revolutionary rule in some regions.
67
Why did the **Vendée rising** matter?
It showed civil war within France ## Footnote The Republic faced enemies not only abroad but also at home.
68
What was the **Federalist revolt**?
Revolt against Parisian dominance ## Footnote Provincial resistance grew after the fall of the Girondins.
69
What happened to the **Girondins** in 1793?
They fell from power ## Footnote Their removal marked a major shift towards more radical rule.
70
Which revolutionary leader became especially associated with wartime government and the **Terror**?
Robespierre ## Footnote Robespierre became one of the most powerful and controversial figures of the period.
71
What was the **levée en masse**?
Mass conscription for war ## Footnote It mobilised the nation’s manpower and resources for defence.
72
# Fill in the blank: The _\_\_\_\_ en masse was a mass mobilisation for war.
levée ## Footnote It helped the Republic survive military crisis.
73
Why was the **levée en masse** important?
It strengthened the war effort ## Footnote The policy linked national mobilisation with revolutionary government.
74
What does the phrase **‘coming of the Terror’** suggest about 1793?
Repression grew out of crisis ## Footnote War, revolt and fear encouraged extraordinary coercion.
75
What was the **CPS**?
Committee of Public Safety ## Footnote It became a central organ of revolutionary government during the Terror.
76
What was the main role of the **CPS** during the Terror?
Directing wartime government ## Footnote It coordinated defence, surveillance and emergency measures.
77
# True or False: The **Terror** involved fewer executions and less repression than the constitutional monarchy.
False ## Footnote The Terror was marked by intensified coercion and extensive executions.
78
What helped the **Terror** spread across France?
Fear of enemies and treason ## Footnote Internal revolt and foreign war encouraged harsh measures.
79
Who were two key forces behind the spread of the **Terror**?
Robespierre and the sans-culottes ## Footnote Leadership from above and pressure from below both mattered.
80
What brought about the **fall of Robespierre**?
Reaction against the Terror ## Footnote By 1794 many revolutionaries feared his power and methods.
81
# Fill in the blank: Robespierre’s fall in 1794 helped bring about the collapse of the _\_\_\_\_.
Terror ## Footnote His overthrow marked a turning point away from extreme repression.
82
What happened to the **Terror** after Robespierre’s fall?
It collapsed ## Footnote The political system moved away from its most intense phase of coercion.
83
What broader pattern defined the years 1774 to 1795 in France?
The destruction of absolutism ## Footnote Monarchy gave way to revolution, republic and radical political experiment.
84
What was the **Thermidorian Reaction**?
The backlash against the Terror ## Footnote After Robespierre’s fall, there was a move away from extreme Jacobin rule and repression.
85
What was the **White Terror**?
Anti-Jacobin violence ## Footnote It involved attacks on former radicals and Jacobin supporters after the Terror.
86
# Fill in the blank: The reaction against Jacobin extremism after 1794 is known as the _\_\_\_\_ Reaction.
Thermidorian ## Footnote It marked a political shift after the fall of Robespierre.
87
What do the **1795 Parisian risings** show about France after the Terror?
Continued instability ## Footnote The end of the Terror did not bring immediate political calm.
88
What new regime was established in France in 1795?
The Directory ## Footnote It replaced the Convention and aimed to create a more stable republican government.
89
What constitutional feature was designed to prevent another dictatorship under the **Directory**?
Divided executive power ## Footnote Authority was split to avoid the concentration of power seen during the Terror.
90
# True or False: The **Directory** created a strong and popular system of government with few political problems.
False ## Footnote It faced persistent weakness, corruption, unrest and lack of legitimacy.
91
What was one major financial problem facing the **Directory**?
Economic instability ## Footnote Inflation, debt and weak confidence continued to undermine government.
92
What was one major political problem facing the **Directory**?
Lack of support ## Footnote It was attacked by both royalists and radicals and struggled to command loyalty.
93
What was one strength of the **Directory**?
It avoided a return to the Terror ## Footnote It provided a less extreme alternative to Jacobin dictatorship.
94
What was one weakness of the **Directory**?
It depended on force ## Footnote It often relied on the army and coercion rather than broad consent.
95
# Fill in the blank: A key weakness of the Directory was its reliance on the _\_\_\_\_.
army ## Footnote Military support helped keep the regime in power but increased political danger.
96
Which rising military figure became central to French success under the **Directory**?
Napoleon Bonaparte ## Footnote His victories brought prestige to France and to himself personally.
97
What aspect of **Napoleon’s background** helped his rapid rise?
Military talent ## Footnote His skill, ambition and success in war made him politically valuable.
98
What personal quality was especially important in **Napoleon’s rise**?
Ambition ## Footnote He combined military success with political opportunism and self-belief.
99
Which campaign first made Napoleon famous across Europe?
The Italian campaign ## Footnote His victories in Italy established his reputation as France’s leading general.
100
Why was the **Italian campaign** important for Napoleon’s rise?
It brought glory and influence ## Footnote Military success turned him into a national hero and political force.
101
# True or False: Napoleon’s expedition to **Egypt** was an unqualified success that immediately strengthened French control of the East.
False ## Footnote It had propaganda value but exposed limits as well as ambition.
102
What did the **Egyptian campaign** reveal about Napoleon?
Strategic ambition ## Footnote It showed his desire for glory beyond Europe and his willingness to take risks.
103
# Fill in the blank: Napoleon’s campaigns in Italy and _\_\_\_\_ made him a national celebrity.
Egypt ## Footnote These expeditions boosted his image even when results were mixed.
104
What was the **coup of Brumaire**?
Napoleon’s seizure of power ## Footnote In 1799 he overthrew the Directory and helped establish the Consulate.
105
In what year did the **coup of Brumaire** take place?
1799 ## Footnote It marked the end of the Directory and the start of Napoleon’s political rule.
106
What new political system was established after **Brumaire**?
The Consulate ## Footnote It gave France a new constitution with Napoleon at its centre.
107
What was one strength of the new constitution after **Brumaire**?
Stronger executive authority ## Footnote It promised more stability after years of disorder and weak government.
108
What was one weakness of the **Consulate constitution**?
It masked dictatorship ## Footnote Republican forms remained, but real power was concentrated in Napoleon’s hands.
109
# True or False: By 1799 **France** was completely stable, prosperous and free from political tension.
False ## Footnote France remained weary from revolution, war and political division.
110
What was Napoleon’s position in France by 1799?
Dominant First Consul ## Footnote He had become the leading political figure in the state.
111
How did Napoleon consolidate power after 1799?
By centralising authority ## Footnote He strengthened his personal control over institutions and reduced opposition.
112
What title did Napoleon adopt in 1804?
Emperor ## Footnote This formalised his personal rule and marked a major constitutional change.
113
What do Napoleon’s **constitutional changes** suggest about his rule?
It became increasingly authoritarian ## Footnote Popular sovereignty survived in theory, but real control lay with Napoleon.
114
How did Napoleon alter **class distinctions** in France?
He preserved inequality but rewarded merit ## Footnote He accepted hierarchy while promoting service and talent within the new regime.
115
What did Napoleon do with **titles** in France?
He revived them ## Footnote New honours and distinctions helped create loyalty to the regime.
116
How did Napoleon use **education**?
To train loyal citizens ## Footnote Schools helped produce administrators, officers and supporters of the state.
117
# True or False: Napoleon’s **educational policies** were mainly designed to encourage political independence and free criticism.
False ## Footnote Education was used to reinforce order, discipline and loyalty.
118
What was Napoleon’s attitude to **women in public life**?
Restrictive ## Footnote His regime reinforced male authority and limited women’s legal independence.
119
How did Napoleon control **opinion** in France?
Through censorship and propaganda ## Footnote He restricted criticism and promoted his own image aggressively.
120
# Fill in the blank: Napoleon relied on censorship and _\_\_\_\_ to shape public opinion.
propaganda ## Footnote Control of information was a key part of his rule.
121
What was the **Concordat**?
An agreement with the Pope ## Footnote It helped settle relations between the French state and the Catholic Church.
122
Why was the **Concordat** important to Napoleon?
It brought religious reconciliation ## Footnote It helped stabilise France by ending some of the conflict between Church and state.
123
What was Napoleon’s broader policy towards the **Church** after the Concordat?
Control with compromise ## Footnote He restored religion’s place while ensuring the state remained dominant.
124
What were the **Napoleonic Codes**?
Legal codes standardising law ## Footnote They helped create a more uniform legal system across France.
125
# True or False: The **Napoleonic Codes** strengthened legal privilege based on birth.
False ## Footnote They reflected equality before the law in some areas, though not social equality.
126
What was the role of **prefects** under Napoleon?
To administer the departments ## Footnote Prefects extended central government control into the provinces.
127
Why were the **police** important under Napoleon?
They enforced control ## Footnote Surveillance and policing helped suppress dissent and maintain order.
128
# Fill in the blank: Napoleon used prefects and the _\_\_\_\_ to tighten state control.
police ## Footnote Administration and surveillance were central to his domestic rule.
129
What was one aim of Napoleon’s **taxation policy**?
Reliable state revenue ## Footnote Stable taxation was needed to support administration and war.
130
What was a central feature of Napoleon’s **economic rule**?
Strong state direction ## Footnote He used government intervention to support the regime and war effort.
131
How did **war** affect Napoleon’s economy?
It placed heavy strain on it ## Footnote Continuous conflict brought costs, disruption and growing pressure on resources.
132
What was the **Continental System**?
A blockade against British trade ## Footnote Napoleon tried to weaken Britain by excluding its goods from Europe.
133
# True or False: The **Continental System** was wholly successful in crushing Britain economically.
False ## Footnote It damaged trade but also harmed continental economies and proved hard to enforce.
134
What does the **Continental System** reveal about Napoleon’s rule?
Economic policy served war aims ## Footnote His economic strategy was closely tied to defeating Britain.
135
Why was France militarily successful by 1808?
Strong army and effective leadership ## Footnote Organisation, experience and Napoleon’s command helped produce repeated victories.
136
What part did Napoleon personally play in French **military success**?
He provided direction and inspiration ## Footnote His leadership was central to planning, morale and rapid campaigning.
137
# Fill in the blank: By 1808, French military success owed much to Napoleon’s leadership and the strength of the _\_\_\_\_.
army ## Footnote The army was the foundation of his empire.
138
Why did Napoleon expand across Europe?
To secure power and glory ## Footnote Expansion was driven by strategy, prestige and the defence of French gains.
139
What was one value of Napoleon’s **empire** to France?
It increased influence ## Footnote French power, prestige and resources were extended across much of Europe.
140
What was one major problem of the **Grand Empire**?
It was hard to control ## Footnote Conquest created resistance, administrative strain and overextension.
141
How was the **Grand Empire** administered?
Through centralised control and client rulers ## Footnote Napoleon used direct rule in some areas and dependent states in others.
142
# True or False: Napoleon allowed the territories of the **Grand Empire** complete independence in policy and administration.
False ## Footnote Control was often tight, with local rulers expected to serve French interests.
143
How did Napoleon try to reshape conquered Europe **socially and economically**?
By exporting reform ## Footnote Administrative change, legal reform and economic exploitation often went together.
144
Why did the continental blockade become a challenge to the **Empire**?
It was difficult to enforce ## Footnote Smuggling, resistance and economic damage weakened the system.
145
What was the **Peninsular War**?
War in Spain and Portugal ## Footnote It became a long, draining conflict that damaged Napoleon’s strength.
146
# Fill in the blank: The war in Spain and Portugal that weakened Napoleon is known as the _\_\_\_\_ War.
Peninsular ## Footnote It tied down troops and encouraged resistance.
147
Why was the **Peninsular War** so damaging to Napoleon?
It became a costly drain ## Footnote Guerrilla warfare and British intervention turned it into a prolonged struggle.
148
What does the **Austrian campaign** show about Napoleon’s empire?
It faced repeated great-power challenges ## Footnote Even after victories, major continental rivals remained dangerous.
149
Why was the **Russian campaign** a turning point?
It destroyed much of Napoleon’s strength ## Footnote The invasion ended in catastrophic losses and weakened his authority.
150
# True or False: Napoleon’s **Russian campaign** strengthened the Empire and secured lasting French dominance in Europe.
False ## Footnote It was a disaster that accelerated the collapse of his power.
151
What was the **Fourth Coalition**?
A major alliance against Napoleon ## Footnote It showed the continuing determination of European powers to resist French domination.
152
What was the **first Peace of Paris**?
The 1814 settlement ending Napoleon’s rule ## Footnote It followed his abdication and restored a different political order in France.
153
What were the **Hundred Days**?
Napoleon’s brief return to power ## Footnote In 1815 he escaped exile and ruled again before final defeat.
154
# Fill in the blank: Napoleon’s brief return in 1815 is known as the Hundred _\_\_\_\_.
Days ## Footnote It ended with defeat and a second abdication.
155
What happened after Napoleon’s **final defeat** in 1815?
He abdicated again ## Footnote His second fall ended the Napoleonic era.
156
What was the **second Peace of Paris**?
The settlement after 1815 ## Footnote It imposed stricter terms on France after Napoleon’s final defeat.
157
How did the **Vienna settlement** treat France overall?
Firmly but not destructively ## Footnote France was contained, but not permanently crushed as a great power.
158
What was the condition of **France** in 1815?
Exhausted and divided ## Footnote Years of revolution and war had left deep political and social strain.
159
# True or False: By 1815 Napoleon’s **reputation** was simple and uncontested across France and Europe.
False ## Footnote He was seen both as a hero of reform and glory and as a bringer of war and dictatorship.
160
What is one major part of Napoleon’s **legacy in France**?
Administrative and legal reform ## Footnote Many institutions created or shaped under him outlasted his fall.
161
What is one major part of Napoleon’s **legacy in Europe**?
The spread of change and reaction ## Footnote His conquests carried reform, but also provoked nationalism and resistance.
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