1
Q
What was the Stalinist legacy facing the USSR in 1953?
A
Stalin left a system marked by repression, fear, extreme central control and distorted economic priorities.
2
Q
What major political problem followed Stalin’s death in 1953?
A
Power vacuum
No clear successor existed, so leading figures competed for control.
3
Q
Which four leading figures were central to the succession struggle in 1953?
A
Malenkov, Beria, Molotov and Khrushchev
Each had influence, but Khrushchev gradually outmanoeuvred the others.
4
Q
What was the main political struggle in the USSR after Stalin’s death?
A
A power struggle among rival leaders seeking authority in the absence of a clear successor.
This period was marked by intense competition for control among key figures in the Communist Party.
5
Q
Why was Beria feared by many Soviet leaders in 1953?
A
His role in the terror system made him powerful but also deeply threatening to rivals.
6
Q
Why did Khrushchev succeed in the power struggle after 1953?
A
Political skill
He built alliances, weakened opponents and presented himself as a reforming but loyal Communist.
7
Q
What was one key feature of Khrushchev’s character as leader?
A
Energetic impulsiveness
He was dynamic and forceful, though often erratic in style and judgement.
8
Q
What broad policy is most associated with Khrushchev after 1956?
A
de-Stalinisation
He tried to reduce some of Stalin’s excesses without abandoning one-party Communist rule.
9
Q
What was the Secret Speech?
A
An attack on Stalin.
In 1956 Khrushchev denounced Stalin’s cult and crimes before a closed Party session.
10
Q
True or False:
Khrushchev’s Secret Speech rejected Soviet Communism itself.
A
False
It attacked Stalin’s abuses, not the whole Soviet system.
11
Q
What was one aim of de-Stalinisation inside the USSR?
A
To reduce terror.
Khrushchev wanted to weaken the climate of fear and arbitrary repression.
12
Q
How did Khrushchev change party organisation?
A
Partial reorganisation
He tried to alter structures and reduce rigid Stalinist methods, though results were mixed.
13
Q
What was one reason Khrushchev reformed industry and agriculture?
A
Economic inefficiency
Centralised Stalinist methods had produced serious waste and imbalance.
14
Q
What does partial decentralisation mean under Khrushchev?
A
Less central control
Some decisions were shifted away from the central ministries in Moscow.
15
Q
Fill in the blank:
Khrushchev’s attempt to increase agricultural output included the _____ Lands scheme.
A
Virgin
New land was brought under cultivation, especially in Kazakhstan.
16
Q
What was the Virgin Lands scheme?
A
It aimed to boost grain output by cultivating previously unused land.
17
Q
What was one short-term result of the Virgin Lands scheme?
A
Initial rise in output.
Early gains were followed by declining returns and environmental problems.
18
Q
What happened to social conditions and living standards under Khrushchev?
A
Housing and consumer provision improved somewhat compared with the late Stalin years.
19
Q
What is meant by the cultural ‘thaw’?
A
Relaxed censorship
There was somewhat greater freedom in culture and discussion, though clear limits remained.
20
Q
True or False:
Khrushchev created full freedom of speech in the USSR.
A
False
Cultural controls eased, but the Soviet state still censored and punished dissent.
21
Q
How did Soviet relations with China change under Khrushchev?
A
They worsened.
Ideological and strategic disagreements led to the Sino-Soviet split.
22
Q
What was peaceful coexistence?
A
Khrushchev argued that capitalism and communism could compete without inevitable war.
23
Q
Why did the Cuban Missile Crisis damage Khrushchev?
A
Loss of prestige
Many critics believed he had acted recklessly and then backed down.
24
Q
What issue dominated Khrushchev’s negotiations with the West in Europe?
A
Berlin
Berlin remained a major source of Cold War tension and summit diplomacy.
25
What was **one major success** of the **Soviet space programme** under Khrushchev?
Soviet achievements in space symbolised **scientific and ideological competition** with the USA.
26
Why was Khrushchev **removed from power** in 1964?
Erratic leadership and failures.
## Footnote
Party colleagues were alarmed by his style, policy reversals and foreign policy setbacks.
27
Who emerged as the **main Soviet leader** after Khrushchev's removal?
Brezhnev
## Footnote
He became the dominant figure in a more conservative leadership.
28
What was one key feature of Brezhnev's **leadership style**?
Caution
## Footnote
He preferred stability, collective leadership language and limited change.
29
What was the **nomenklatura system**?
Privileged official network
## Footnote
Important posts were filled through party control, helping create a protected elite.
30
# Fill in the blank:
The Soviet system of elite appointments and privileges under Brezhnev was called the _\_\_\_\_.
nomenklatura
## Footnote
It encouraged patronage, loyalty and corruption.
31
Why did **corruption** grow under Brezhnev?
Entrenched elite privilege.
## Footnote
Long-serving officials enjoyed protection and had little incentive for reform.
32
What were the **Kosygin reforms**?
Limited economic reforms.
## Footnote
They aimed to improve efficiency without abandoning central planning.
33
Why did the **Kosygin reforms** have **limited success**?
Resistance to change.
## Footnote
Bureaucratic caution and fear of losing control weakened reform.
34
What broader **term** is used for the **Brezhnev years**?
Stagnation
## Footnote
Economic growth slowed and the system became increasingly rigid.
35
What was one major **economic weakness** of the USSR under Brezhnev?
Low efficiency
## Footnote
Planning remained cumbersome and innovation lagged badly.
36
How did **defence spending** affect the Soviet economy under Brezhnev?
Drained resources
## Footnote
Military competition with the West absorbed resources that could have improved civilian life.
37
What happened to **consumer goods** and living standards under Brezhnev?
Limited improvement
## Footnote
Some stability existed, but shortages and poor quality remained widespread.
38
# True or False:
Ordinary Soviet workers had the **same lifestyle** as the political elite under Brezhnev.
False
## Footnote
The elite had significantly better access to goods, housing, and privileges.
39
What was **détente**?
Easing of **Cold War** tensions.
## Footnote
The USSR pursued improved relations with the West in the 1970s while rivalry continued.
40
Why was the Soviet invasion of **Afghanistan** in 1979 significant?
It **worsened** Soviet problems.
## Footnote
It damaged détente, drained resources and exposed military and political weakness.
41
What was the **Second Cold War**?
It renewed superpower hostility.
## Footnote
Tensions intensified again in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
42
Who was **Andrei Sakharov**?
A dissident **scientist**.
## Footnote
He became a prominent critic of repression and lack of rights in the USSR.
43
Who was **Alexander Solzhenitsyn**?
A dissident **writer**.
## Footnote
His writings exposed the brutality of Soviet repression, especially the camps.
44
How did the **Helsinki Accords** affect the USSR internally?
He encouraged **dissent**.
## Footnote
Human rights language gave dissidents a basis for criticising the regime.
45
What was **nationalist unrest** in the USSR?
Resistance from **non-Russian** people.
## Footnote
Different national groups challenged Moscow's control and demanded greater autonomy.
46
What kind of **reform** did **Andropov** attempt?
Limited discipline measures.
## Footnote
He tried modest economic and administrative tightening without fundamental change.
47
Why is **Chernenko** associated with **stagnation**?
Little effective change.
## Footnote
His short rule represented continuity and drift rather than renewal.
48
# Fill in the blank:
Before becoming leader, **Gorbachev** was seen as one of the younger Soviet _\_\_\_\_.
reformers
## Footnote
He appeared more willing than his predecessors to modernise the system.
49
What was **one key feature** of Gorbachev's **personality** as leader?
Reforming optimism
## Footnote
He believed the Soviet system could be renewed through major change.
50
What was **perestroika**?
An economic restructuring.
## Footnote
Gorbachev's policy aimed to reform the failing Soviet economy.
51
What was **glasnost**?
Openness
## Footnote
It encouraged greater discussion, criticism and public access to information.
52
What was **demokratizatsiya**?
Limited democratisation
## Footnote
Gorbachev tried to make politics more participatory while preserving socialism.
53
# True or False:
Gorbachev **introduced reform** because the Soviet economy was strong and stable.
False
## Footnote
Reform was driven in large part by deep economic weakness and stagnation.
54
Why did Gorbachev **withdraw** from **Afghanistan**?
To reduce burdens.
## Footnote
The war was costly, unpopular and part of the wider need to cut Cold War commitments.
55
What did summit meetings leading to **Malta** show?
Cold War ending
## Footnote
US-Soviet relations had moved towards cooperation and away from confrontation.
56
Why was **Chernobyl** important politically for Gorbachev's USSR?
It exposed system failures.
## Footnote
The disaster revealed secrecy, incompetence and the need for openness.
57
What was one outcome of Gorbachev's **economic restructuring**?
It led to disappointing results.
## Footnote
Reform disrupted the old system without producing stable prosperity.
58
What was one outcome of Gorbachev's **political reforms**?
It weakened Party control.
## Footnote
Greater openness and elections made it harder for the CPSU to dominate society.
59
Why did opposition to **Gorbachev** grow?
Reforms upset all sides
## Footnote
Conservatives feared collapse, while radicals and nationalists wanted faster change.
60
What happened in the **August 1991 coup**?
The **hardliners** tried to seize power.
## Footnote
Conservatives attempted to reverse reform and save the old order.
61
How did **Yeltsin** respond to the **August 1991 coup**?
Led resistance
## Footnote
His defiance helped defeat the coup and boosted his own authority.
62
# Fill in the blank:
The failed attempt by Soviet hardliners to reverse reform took place in August _\_\_\_\_.
1991
## Footnote
Its failure accelerated the collapse of Soviet central authority.
63
What happened to **Gorbachev** after the **collapse of Soviet authority**?
He resigned.
## Footnote
He stepped down as Soviet president as the USSR disintegrated.
64
Why did the **USSR** collapse?
Combined political and economic crisis.
## Footnote
Reform, nationalism, economic failure and loss of Party control all contributed.
65
Why can **Gorbachev** be seen as an apparent failure?
He lost control of change.
## Footnote
He tried to save the Soviet system but instead presided over its collapse.
66
What was one key feature of Yeltsin's **personality as leader**?
Populist defiance
## Footnote
He projected himself as a decisive opponent of the old Soviet order.
67
What was one major aim of **Yeltsin** after 1991?
To build post-Soviet Russia.
## Footnote
He sought to create a new Russian state with market economics and new political structures.
68
What was one major **economic problem** under Yeltsin?
Severe instability
## Footnote
Market reform brought inflation, hardship and social dislocation.
69
What was one major **political problem** under Yeltsin?
Unrest and conflict
## Footnote
Russia faced resistance, parliamentary crisis and weak state authority.
70
# True or False:
Yeltsin's reforms quickly produced **social stability** and broad **prosperity**.
False
## Footnote
The 1990s were marked by economic pain, corruption and political turmoil.
71
Why was **Yeltsin** re-elected in **1996**?
Fear of communist return.
## Footnote
Many voters and elites backed him despite discontent because they feared reversal.
72
What did **Yeltsin** do in 1999?
He resigned.
## Footnote
He stepped down unexpectedly and handed power to Putin.
73
Who became **Russia's leader** at the end of **1999**?
Putin
## Footnote
He emerged as Yeltsin's successor and promised stronger government.
74
What was the state of **Russia** by 2000?
Unstable but post-Soviet.
## Footnote
Russia had political pluralism and markets, but also deep inequality, weakness and uncertainty.
75
Which **Polish Communist leader** returned to power during the crisis of **1956**?
Gomulka
## Footnote
Wladyslaw Gomulka came back as a more nationally rooted Communist leader while keeping Poland inside the Soviet bloc.
76
Which **Hungarian leader** tried to introduce **major reforms** during the **1956** uprising?
Nagy
## Footnote
Imre Nagy became the symbol of Hungarian reform and resistance to Soviet control.
77
Which **hard-line Hungarian leader** was associated with **Stalinist repression** before 1956?
Rakosi
## Footnote
Matyas Rakosi imposed harsh Stalinist methods and helped create deep popular resentment.
78
Which **East German leader** dominated the **GDR** in the 1950s and 1960s?
Ulbricht
## Footnote
Walter Ulbricht oversaw tight Communist rule and major dependence on Soviet support.
79
Which **Czechoslovak leader** headed a rigid **Communist regime** before the Prague Spring?
Novotny
## Footnote
Antonin Novotny became associated with economic weakness and political stagnation.
80
# Fill in the blank:
The East German leader before the rise of Honecker was Walter _\_\_\_\_.
Ulbricht
## Footnote
He led the GDR during the 1953 rising and the building of the Berlin Wall.
81
What was the main **political structure** common to the **Soviet satellite states**?
One-party Communist rule.
## Footnote
Communist parties dominated the state, with limited or no genuine political competition.
82
What **economic system** was imposed across the **Soviet satellite states**?
Centrally planned economy.
## Footnote
Production, prices and investment were directed by the state rather than free markets.
83
What was **collectivisation** in the satellite states?
Merging private farms.
## Footnote
Agriculture was reorganised into collective or state-controlled systems with varying success.
84
Give one **political weakness** common to the satellite states in the 1950s.
Lack of legitimacy.
## Footnote
Many regimes depended on Soviet backing rather than genuine popular support.
85
Give one **economic weakness** common to the satellite states.
Inefficiency
## Footnote
Central planning often produced shortages, waste and weak consumer provision.
86
# True or False:
The satellite states were **fully independent democracies** after 1945.
False
## Footnote
They remained under heavy Soviet influence and were ruled by Communist parties.
87
What is meant by **Sovietisation** in Eastern Europe?
Imposition of Soviet-style systems.
## Footnote
Politics, economics, policing and culture were reshaped to mirror the USSR.
88
How was **propaganda** used in the satellite states?
To justify Communist rule.
## Footnote
It praised socialism, leadership and Soviet friendship while suppressing criticism.
89
What was one claimed **benefit** of Communist rule in the satellites?
Expanded education
## Footnote
Literacy, schooling and technical training often improved under state direction.
90
What was one common social **problem** in the satellite states?
Poor living standards
## Footnote
Consumer shortages, housing problems and low-quality goods caused dissatisfaction.
91
What **role** did **state organisations** play in everyday life?
Extend state control.
## Footnote
Youth, workplace and social bodies helped monitor and mobilise the population.
92
What was one important feature of **repression** in the satellite states?
Secret police surveillance
## Footnote
Security services watched, intimidated and arrested suspected opponents.
93
# Fill in the blank:
The Communist regimes relied heavily on censorship and the _\_\_\_\_ police.
secret
## Footnote
These agencies were central to repression and fear.
94
How did **censorship** operate in the Soviet satellites?
Controlled information
## Footnote
The press, publishing, arts and public debate were all tightly restricted.
95
How did Communist **legal systems** usually function in the satellite states?
It protected the regime.
## Footnote
Courts were used more to defend political control than to guarantee justice.
96
Why was the **Church** often a problem for Communist governments?
They are a **rival source** of loyalty.
## Footnote
Religious institutions could resist atheistic state control and preserve independent values.
97
Why were **emigration restrictions** significant in the satellite states?
These restrictions aimed to **prevent citizens** from **leaving** their countries.
## Footnote
Governments feared that mass emigration would reveal their unpopularity and harm the economy.
98
What happened in **East Germany** in 1953?
A workers' uprising.
## Footnote
Unrest over economic hardship and political control was crushed with Soviet backing.
99
Why did the **East German rising of 1953** matter?
It demonstrated the **vulnerability** of the **East German government** and its reliance on Soviet support.
## Footnote
The uprising highlighted widespread discontent among the population regarding economic conditions and political repression.
100
What happened in **Poland** in 1956?
Unrest and reform crisis
## Footnote
Worker protest and political pressure led to Gomulka's return and limited concessions.
101
Why did the **USSR** tolerate **Gomulka** in Poland?
He stayed loyal to the bloc.
## Footnote
Gomulka promised reform without leaving Soviet control.
102
What happened in **Hungary** in 1956?
A national uprising against Soviet control.
## Footnote
Protest turned into a major anti-Soviet revolt demanding political freedom and neutrality.
103
# True or False:
The **Hungarian uprising of 1956** ended in lasting **independence** from the USSR.
False
## Footnote
Soviet forces crushed the revolt and reimposed control.
104
Which **Hungarian leader** restored Soviet-backed order after 1956?
Kadar
## Footnote
Janos Kadar replaced Nagy and rebuilt Communist rule with Soviet support.
105
Why was **Hungary 1956** important for East-West relations?
It exposed Soviet ruthlessness.
## Footnote
It showed the USSR would use force to preserve its empire.
106
What was the **main issue** over **Berlin** before 1961?
East German emigration
## Footnote
Large numbers fled through Berlin, embarrassing the GDR and weakening it economically.
107
Why was the **Berlin Wall** built in 1961?
To stop defections.
## Footnote
It sealed the escape route from East to West Berlin.
108
# Fill in the blank:
The barrier built in 1961 to halt movement from **East to West Berlin** was the Berlin _\_\_\_\_.
Wall
## Footnote
It became the most famous symbol of the division of Europe.
109
What was the **Prague Spring**?
Reform movement in **Czechoslovakia**.
## Footnote
In 1968 Dubcek tried to create 'socialism with a human face'.
110
Which **Czechoslovak leader** became associated with the Prague Spring?
Dubcek
## Footnote
Alexander Dubcek promoted reforms in politics, media and society.
111
Why did the USSR feel threatened by the **Prague Spring**?
USSR was concerned about **potential reform movements** inspiring similar actions in other Eastern Bloc countries.
## Footnote
Soviet leaders feared that liberalization could lead to a loss of control over their satellite states.
112
What was the outcome of the **Prague Spring**?
Soviet-led invasion
## Footnote
Warsaw Pact forces crushed the reform movement and restored tighter control.
113
# True or False:
The Prague Spring led to a permanent democratic transformation of Czechoslovakia in 1968.
False
## Footnote
Reform was ended by military intervention and followed by 'normalisation'.
114
Which **Polish leader** is associated with the 1970s period of borrowing and limited reform?
Gierek
## Footnote
Edward Gierek sought to improve living standards through Western loans and economic adjustment.
115
Which **Czechoslovak leader** oversaw 'normalisation' after 1968?
Husak
## Footnote
Gustav Husak restored orthodox rule and reversed many Prague Spring reforms.
116
Which **East German leader** replaced Ulbricht in 1971?
Honecker
## Footnote
Erich Honecker presided over a more consumer-oriented but still repressive GDR.
117
What was one distinctive feature of **Kadar's Hungary** after 1956?
Limited economic flexibility.
## Footnote
Hungary allowed somewhat more consumer choice and modest reform than many neighbours.
118
What does '**real existing Socialism**' imply about Eastern Europe after 1968?
The phrase reflected systems that were **less utopian** and more focused on managed **survival**.
119
What was one strength of some 1970s **satellite economies**?
A better social provision.
## Footnote
Education, housing and welfare could compare favourably with earlier decades.
120
What was **one major weakness** of these economies by the late **1970s**?
Debt and inefficiency
## Footnote
Growth slowed and borrowing, shortages and low productivity became serious problems.
121
How did the **West** influence the satellite states socially?
Western broadcasts and lifestyles undermined Communist **claims of superiority**.
122
Why did the **Helsinki Accords** matter inside Eastern Europe?
He encouraged **rights activism**.
## Footnote
Dissidents used human rights commitments to criticise their governments.
123
What was **Charter 77**?
Czechoslovak dissident movement
## Footnote
It called on the regime to respect the human rights promises it had signed.
124
What was **KOR** in Poland?
Workers' defence group
## Footnote
It linked intellectual critics with workers and helped prepare later opposition movements.
125
Why were **Church organisations** important in Poland?
To preserve **independent** identity.
## Footnote
The Catholic Church offered moral leadership and space outside state control.
126
Why were **Church groups** significant in the GDR?
It is a **shelter** for dissent.
## Footnote
Religious spaces sometimes allowed discussion and activism beyond direct party control.
127
What did contested **elections** in Hungary suggest?
Limited loosening of control.
## Footnote
They showed that some reform and managed competition were emerging before 1989.
128
# True or False:
By the late 1970s, Western influence **had no effect** on Eastern European societies.
False
## Footnote
Media, trade and cultural comparison increasingly weakened Communist legitimacy.
129
What happened in **Poland** in 1980?
Strikes and mass protest.
## Footnote
Economic crisis and labour unrest created the biggest challenge yet to Communist rule.
130
# Fill in the blank:
The independent Polish trade union founded in 1980 was called _\_\_\_\_.
Solidarity
## Footnote
It became the most powerful organised opposition movement in the Soviet bloc.
131
Why was **Solidarity** important?
Mass independent movement
## Footnote
It united workers, intellectuals and national-Catholic sentiment against the regime.
132
How did the **Polish** government first react to **Solidarity**?
Through uneasy negotiation and repression.
## Footnote
It made concessions but later moved to crush the movement.
133
How did the USSR view **Solidarity**?
A **serious threat** to bloc control.
## Footnote
Moscow feared Polish unrest might spread across Eastern Europe.
134
Which **Polish leader** imposed **martial law** to restrain Solidarity?
Jaruzelski
## Footnote
Wojciech Jaruzelski acted in 1981 to restore order and preserve Communist rule.
135
What was the purpose of **martial law** in Poland?
To crush opposition.
## Footnote
It restricted freedoms, arrested activists and temporarily broke open protest.
136
What kinds of **groups** challenged the regime in the GDR during the **1980s**?
Peace and environmental groups.
## Footnote
These movements criticised militarisation, pollution and lack of freedom.
137
What does **IFN** refer to in the East German context?
Independent peace activism
## Footnote
Such groups showed that criticism was spreading beyond economic issues alone.
138
Which **Romanian leader** symbolised hard-line **dictatorship** by 1989?
Ceausescu
## Footnote
Nicolae Ceausescu ruled through repression, cult politics and disastrous economic policies.
139
Which **Bulgarian Communist leader** remained in power until **1989**?
Zhivkov
## Footnote
Todor Zhivkov presided over a rigid regime with growing economic and political problems.
140
What was the state of **Communism in Romania** by 1989?
Repressive and bankrupt
## Footnote
The regime combined intense dictatorship with severe economic hardship.
141
What was the state of **Communism in Bulgaria** by 1989?
Weakened and stagnant
## Footnote
Leadership legitimacy and economic performance had both badly deteriorated.
142
# True or False:
All Eastern European Communist regimes **collapsed** in exactly the same way in 1989.
False
## Footnote
Some fell peacefully, while Romania experienced violent overthrow.
143
What happened in **Poland** in 1989?
Negotiated transition
## Footnote
Talks and elections opened the way to non-Communist government.
144
What happened in **Hungary** in 1989?
Peaceful reform transition
## Footnote
Communist control gave way through reform, opening and political negotiation.
145
What happened in **East Germany** in 1989?
Mass protest toppled regime
## Footnote
Demonstrations and the opening of the border led to the fall of Communist rule.
146
What happened in **Czechoslovakia** in 1989?
Velvet Revolution
## Footnote
Peaceful protest rapidly ended Communist power.
147
What happened in **Bulgaria** in 1989?
Leadership collapse and reform
## Footnote
Change came through pressure within the elite as well as wider weakness.
148
Which Eastern European **state** saw violent change in 1989?
Romania
## Footnote
Ceausescu's regime collapsed amid revolt, repression and execution of the leader.
149
# Fill in the blank:
The peaceful overthrow of Communism in Czechoslovakia in 1989 is known as the _\_\_\_\_ Revolution.
Velvet
## Footnote
It contrasted sharply with the violence seen in Romania.
150
What was one major **political problem** for the **new post-Communist** states?
Unstable government formation
## Footnote
New democracies often faced fragmented parties and weak institutions.
151
What happened between the **Czech and Slovak republics** after Communism?
Peaceful separation
## Footnote
Czechoslovakia split into two independent states in 1993.
152
What was one major **economic change** in Eastern Europe after 1989?
Restoration of capitalism.
## Footnote
State socialism was replaced by market reforms and privatisation.
153
What was one **difficulty** caused by the return to capitalism?
Social hardship
## Footnote
Unemployment, inequality and insecurity rose during transition.
154
How did the **new states** seek closer ties with the **West**?
Through European integration.
## Footnote
Many aimed for links with NATO, the EU and Western investment.
155
# True or False:
By 2000 all problems of transition in **Eastern and Central Europe** had been solved.
False
## Footnote
Progress was real, but corruption, inequality and political instability remained.
156
What overall **condition** best describes many **Eastern and Central European** states by 2000?
Mixed progress
## Footnote
Democracy and market reform had advanced, but the legacy of Communism still caused major difficulties.
A-Level History (Edexcel)
flashcards
Decks in class (30)
# Cards
-
The Crusades and the Near East102
-
Spain: Monarchy and Empire94
-
Tudor England: Authority and Religion92
-
Stuart Britain: Conflict and Revolution74
-
Russia: Absolutism and Reform73
-
Industrial Britain: Change and Reform111
-
Modern Britain: Transformation and Society113
-
Russia: Revolution and the Soviet State119
-
The British Empire: Expansion and Decline108
-
The USA: Emergence of a Superpower116
-
Germany: Unification to Reunification110
-
Medieval England: Authority and Conflict136
-
Late Medieval England: Dynastic Conflict118
-
The European Reformation153
-
The English Reformation318
-
The English Civil War147
-
France under Louis XIV145
-
The American Revolution and Early USA129
-
The French Revolution and Napoleon161
-
The American Civil War and Reconstruction137
-
International Relations and the Origins of War100
-
Fascist Italy140
-
Britain: War and Welfare157
-
Russia: Revolution and Stalinism183
-
Germany: Democracy and Nazism153
-
China: Revolution and Reform150
-
The USA: Society and Change135
-
The Cold War147
-
Modern Britain since 1950150
-
The Collapse of Communism156
