1
Q
Which chief minister’s legacy shaped the French monarchy in 1643 most directly?
A
Richelieu
Richelieu had strengthened royal authority and weakened major internal opponents before his death in 1642.
2
Q
Which king left the French monarchy to the young Louis XIV in 1643?
A
Louis XIII
Louis XIII died in 1643, leaving his son a minor and creating the need for a Regency.
3
Q
Who became Regent during the minority of Louis XIV?
A
Anne of Austria
She was Louis XIV’s mother and held formal authority during his minority.
4
Q
Which minister dominated French government alongside Anne of Austria during the Regency?
A
Mazarin
Cardinal Mazarin continued many of Richelieu’s policies and remained the leading minister.
5
Q
What political institution in Paris became a major centre of resistance during the Regency?
A
Parlement of Paris
It was a sovereign court, not a modern parliament, and tried to limit royal authority.
6
Q
Why did the Parlement of Paris oppose the Crown in the late 1640s?
A
- Resisted new heavy taxation edicts.
- Defended traditional constitutional legal powers.
- Opposed foreign minister Mazarin’s influence.
- Exploited weakened royal authority Regency.
- Backed by mobilised Parisian population.
Resistance grew from attempts to register and enforce new fiscal measures.
7
Q
What name is given to the series of uprisings that challenged royal authority during the minority of Louis XIV?
A
The Frondes
The Frondes exposed the fragility of royal government during Louis XIV’s youth.
8
Q
What was the first phase of the Frondes called?
A
Fronde of the Parlement
It began in 1648 and centred on judicial and urban resistance to the Crown.
9
Q
What was the second phase of the Frondes called?
A
Fronde of the Princes
This phase involved noble factionalism and rivalries among leading aristocrats.
10
Q
True or False:
The Frondes permanently reduced the authority of the French monarchy.
A
False
In the longer term, the Crown emerged stronger and more determined to impose order.
11
Q
How did the experience of the Frondes affect Louis XIV’s later attitude to disorder?
A
It made him value order.
The unrest helped shape his determination to centralise authority and control opposition.
12
Q
Why was Anne of Austria’s support to Mazarin during the Frondes significant?
A
Her backing was essential to Mazarin’s survival in office during repeated crises.
13
Q
Which European dynasty lost ground as French power rose during the Regency?
A
The Habsburgs
French success came largely at the expense of both the Spanish and Austrian Habsburg branches.
14
Q
Which 1648 settlement helped end the Thirty Years’ War and increased French influence in Europe?
A
The Peace of Westphalia
It marked a major diplomatic gain for France and weakened Habsburg dominance.
15
Q
Name three terms of the Peace of Westphalia 1648.
A
- Recognised full state territorial sovereignty
- Expanded religious freedoms in Empire (Calvinism added to legal confessions)
- Granted independence to Dutch Republic
16
Q
Which 1659 treaty ended war between France and Spain and confirmed French gains?
A
The Treaty of the Pyrenees
It was a major success for Mazarin’s foreign policy.
17
Q
What broader trend did the Treaty of the Pyrenees reveal about Spain?
A
Spanish decline
Spain remained important, but its military and diplomatic strength had weakened.
18
Q
What broader trend did the Treaty of the Pyrenees reveal about France?
A
French ascendancy
France was becoming the leading continental power under Bourbon rule.
19
Q
In what year did Louis XIV begin personal rule after Mazarin’s death?
A
1661
Louis XIV shocked many by deciding to rule without a chief minister.
20
Q
What was the condition of France in 1661 in political terms after the Regency?
A
More stable but still fragile.
The Crown had survived unrest, but memories of disorder remained strong.
21
Q
What was the condition of France in 1661 in economic terms?
A
Financial strain
War, debt and uneven taxation created persistent fiscal problems.
22
Q
What was the condition of France in 1661 in social terms?
A
Deep inequality
Privilege varied sharply by estate and region, with burdens falling heavily on commoners.
23
Q
Which political idea did Louis XIV use to justify his authority?
A
Divine Right
He claimed that kings ruled by God’s will and were accountable chiefly to God.
24
Q
What was Louis XIV’s central domestic aim after 1661?
A
To strengthen royal authority.
He sought order, obedience and the reduction of independent power centres.
25
# True or False:
Louis XIV relied on a powerful **first minister** in the same way as Richelieu and Mazarin.
False
## Footnote
After 1661 he ruled personally, though he still depended on ministers and councils.
26
What domestic priority followed naturally from Louis XIV’s memory of the **Frondes**?
Restoration of order
## Footnote
He associated instability with danger to monarchy and state.
27
What process did Louis XIV pursue to tighten control over France from 1661?
Centralisation
## Footnote
He aimed to bring decision-making more firmly under royal control.
28
Which palace became the symbolic centre of **Louis XIV’s rule**?
Versailles
## Footnote
Versailles projected majesty and helped domesticate the nobility through court life.
29
Why was **Versailles** politically useful to Louis XIV?
It controlled the nobility.
## Footnote
Courtiers competed for favour there, reducing their independence in the provinces.
30
Which ruler is most associated with the image of the **‘Sun King’**?
Louis XIV
## Footnote
The image emphasised splendour, authority and the centrality of the monarch.
31
# Fill in the blank:
Louis XIV’s court culture at **_\_\_\_** helped display absolutist power.
Versailles
## Footnote
Ceremony and access to the king became tools of political control.
32
Which cultural institution symbolised royal patronage of language and literature under **Louis XIV**?
Académie Française
## Footnote
It helped regulate French language and reflected the Crown’s support for culture.
33
Which scientific institution reflected **Louis XIV’s** patronage of learning?
Academy of Sciences
## Footnote
It showed that royal prestige extended into science and intellectual life.
34
Which minister was especially important in promoting art, culture and economic reform under **Louis XIV**?
Colbert
## Footnote
Jean-Baptiste Colbert became one of Louis XIV’s most influential servants.
35
Which minister is most closely linked to Louis XIV’s **financial reforms**?
Colbert
36
What financial reforms did Colbert carry out?
* Centralised and audited financial administration
* Cracked down on tax corruption
* Expanded state‑supported manufacturing industries
* Promoted exports through mercantilist policies
* Improved trade infrastructure nationwide (roads, canals, ports)
37
What was **Colbert’s** main economic aim in broad terms?
To enrich the state.
## Footnote
Stronger finances were meant to support monarchy, administration and war.
38
What persistent weakness limited the effectiveness of royal **financial reform**?
Unequal taxation
## Footnote
Privilege and exemptions meant the tax burden was not evenly shared.
39
Which word describes **Colbert’s policy** of promoting state-guided trade and industry?
mercantilism
## Footnote
It stressed exports, regulation and the accumulation of wealth for state power.
40
Why did **Colbert** try to improve trade and communications within France?
To strengthen internal commerce.
## Footnote
Better roads, canals and infrastructure helped unify markets and increase revenue.
41
What overseas objective formed part of **Colbert’s** economic policy?
Colonial expansion
## Footnote
Colonies and overseas trade were seen as sources of wealth and prestige.
42
Why was **overseas trade** important to Louis XIV’s government?
It could increase wealth.
## Footnote
It fitted mercantilist goals by bringing resources and markets under French control.
43
# True or False:
**Colbert** believed the economy should be left entirely to private enterprise without state direction.
False
## Footnote
His approach relied heavily on state intervention, regulation and supervision.
44
Which institution brought Louis XIV into conflict over **ecclesiastical authority**?
The Papacy
## Footnote
Disputes arose over how far the French Crown could control the Church in France.
45
What term describes the belief that the French Crown should enjoy considerable control over the **Church in France**?
Gallicanism
## Footnote
Gallican ideas limited papal authority within the French kingdom.
46
Which Catholic religious movement was persecuted by **Louis XIV**?
Jansenism
## Footnote
It was viewed as religiously suspect and politically troublesome.
47
Which religious minority faced growing pressure under **Louis XIV** before 1685?
Huguenots
## Footnote
The Crown increasingly restricted Protestant worship and rights.
48
What 1685 measure ended the toleration previously granted to French Protestants?
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
## Footnote
The Revocation intensified persecution and encouraged emigration.
49
# Fill in the blank:
In 1685 Louis XIV revoked the Edict of **_\_\_\_**.
Nantes
## Footnote
This marked a decisive turn towards religious uniformity.
50
# True or False:
Louis XIV’s policy towards the **Huguenots** became more tolerant in the 1680s.
False
## Footnote
His policy hardened, culminating in the Revocation of 1685.
51
What religious aim underlay Louis XIV’s policy towards **Jansenists and Huguenots**?
Religious unity
## Footnote
He associated confessional uniformity with political obedience and order.
52
In 1661, what was the main **foreign policy context** facing Louis XIV?
France was strong and ambitious.
## Footnote
France had major resources and sought to exploit Habsburg weakness.
53
What was **Louis XIV’s** broad foreign policy aim after 1661?
To expand French power.
## Footnote
He sought glory, security and gains in territory and influence.
54
What gave Louis XIV unusual strength in **foreign policy** compared with many rivals?
Large military resources
## Footnote
France had a big population and could support substantial armed forces.
55
Which institution helped professionalise the **officer corps** in Louis XIV’s reign?
The Military Academy
## Footnote
It was part of the wider development of a more effective royal army.
56
Which minister is most closely associated with **military organisation** under Louis XIV?
Louvois
## Footnote
He helped expand, supply and discipline the French armed forces.
57
Which rival kingdom’s military weakness encouraged Louis XIV to act in the 1660s?
Spain
## Footnote
Spanish decline tempted Louis XIV to press claims in the Spanish Netherlands.
58
Which conflict was sparked by Louis XIV’s claims against **Spanish territory** in 1667?
The War of Devolution
## Footnote
It arose from dynastic claims through his wife, Maria Theresa.
59
What was Louis XIV claiming in the **War of Devolution**?
Territorial rights in the Spanish Netherlands
## Footnote
He used legal arguments of inheritance to justify expansion.
60
Name three consequences of the **War of Devolution** 1667.
* France kept several fortified towns.
* Triple Alliance formed against France.
* Franco‑Dutch alliance permanently collapsed.
61
Which republic became a major opponent of Louis XIV in the 1670s?
The Dutch Republic
## Footnote
Dutch resistance was crucial in checking French expansion.
62
Which English king cooperated at times with Louis XIV against the **Dutch**?
Charles II
## Footnote
Anglo-French links shaped the diplomacy of the early 1670s.
63
What was the major war between France and the **Dutch Republic** in the 1670s called?
The Franco-Dutch War
## Footnote
It began in 1672 and widened into a broader European conflict.
64
Which settlement ended the **Franco-Dutch War** and confirmed important French gains?
The Peace of Nijmegen
## Footnote
The peace of 1678 to 1679 enhanced French prestige but alarmed rivals.
65
After the Peace of Nijmegen, what policy did Louis XIV use to annex further **territories**?
The policy of Reunions
## Footnote
Special courts were used to claim lands supposedly linked to earlier conquests.
66
What was the aim of the **policy of Reunions**?
To recover ‘lost’ territories.
## Footnote
Louis XIV claimed areas allegedly dependent on previously acquired lands.
67
Name one important place annexed or targeted through the **policy of Reunions**.
Strasbourg
## Footnote
Other examples include Luxembourg and Casale.
68
Which treaty in 1684 temporarily recognised many of Louis XIV’s gains from the **Reunions**?
The Treaty of Ratisbon
## Footnote
It gave France a temporary diplomatic success and confirmed recent expansion.
69
# True or False:
The **Treaty of Ratisbon** completely ended European fears about French expansion.
False
## Footnote
Louis XIV’s successes increased concern among other powers about French ambitions.
70
What long-term consequence did Louis XIV’s successes between 1661 and 1685 have for Europe?
Growing opposition to France
## Footnote
Repeated expansion encouraged other states to combine against French power.
71
What combination of factors best explains **Louis XIV’s success** in Europe before 1685?
Strong army and weak rivals
## Footnote
French resources mattered, but so did divisions and decline among opponents.
72
What combination of factors best explains **Louis XIV’s domestic authority** before 1685?
Royal image and central control
## Footnote
Propaganda, court culture, administration and order all reinforced his rule.
73
What is meant by **Louis XIV’s ‘personal monarchy’** after 1685?
Louis XIV governed without a chief minister, making the monarch the key source of authority and decision-making.
74
What was one major strength of **Louis XIV’s personal monarchy**?
Clear central authority
## Footnote
Decision-making was concentrated at the centre, which could improve control and consistency.
75
What was one major weakness of **Louis XIV’s personal monarchy**?
Overdependence on the king
## Footnote
A system so dependent on one ruler could become less effective if judgement faltered or priorities were overstretched.
76
# True or False:
Louis XIV restored the office of **chief minister** after 1685 to ease pressure on government.
False
## Footnote
He continued to rule personally, even though he relied on ministers and councils for administration.
77
Which woman had notable influence at court in **Louis XIV’s later reign**?
Madame de Maintenon
## Footnote
She was the king’s second wife in all but public title and had influence over court culture and religious tone.
78
How did **Madame de Maintenon** tend to influence the atmosphere of Louis XIV’s court?
Towards greater piety.
## Footnote
Her influence is often linked to a more serious and devout tone in the later court.
79
# Fill in the blank:
In the later reign, the influence of Madame de _\_\_\_\_ became an important feature of court politics.
Maintenon
## Footnote
Her position gave her access to the king and informal political weight.
80
Which minister’s death left a major gap in **financial management** before Louis XIV’s later difficulties?
Colbert
## Footnote
After Colbert, financial problems became harder to contain, especially under wartime pressure.
81
What happened to French finances after **Colbert’s era**?
They deteriorated.
## Footnote
Structural weaknesses and prolonged warfare made fiscal problems more severe.
82
What was the main reason the Crown’s finances worsened in **Louis XIV’s later reign**?
The cost of war
## Footnote
Large armies, fortifications and long campaigns consumed enormous resources.
83
Why did war place such severe pressure on the **French economy** after 1685?
It drained revenue and credit.
## Footnote
Warfare demanded taxation, borrowing and supply on a huge scale.
84
# True or False:
Louis XIV’s later wars made no serious difference to **France’s financial position**.
False
## Footnote
The burden of repeated wars contributed heavily to debt and economic strain.
85
What long-term weakness in the **tax system** continued to damage royal finances?
Inequality of taxation
## Footnote
Privilege and exemptions meant burdens fell unevenly and revenue collection remained inefficient.
86
How did the costs of war affect **ordinary people** in France?
They increased hardship.
## Footnote
Taxation, requisitioning and disruption added to pressures on communities.
87
Which religious principle stressed the rights of the French Crown over the **Church in France**?
Gallicanism
## Footnote
It limited papal authority and supported greater royal control over ecclesiastical matters.
88
What did **Gallicanism** suggest about papal power in France?
It should be limited.
## Footnote
The French monarchy sought to defend its own authority in church affairs.
89
# Fill in the blank:
Louis XIV’s later religious policy continued to be shaped by _\_\_\_\_ ideas about the Church.
Gallican
## Footnote
Gallicanism supported the autonomy of the French Church under the Crown.
90
How did Louis XIV’s later policy treat the **Huguenots** after 1685?
With persecution
## Footnote
The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes intensified pressure on French Protestants.
91
What happened to many Huguenots as a result of Louis XIV’s later **religious policy**?
They emigrated.
## Footnote
Many fled abroad, taking skills and capital with them.
92
Why was **Huguenot emigration** a problem for France?
Loss of skills and wealth
## Footnote
Protestant refugees included artisans, merchants and professionals valuable to the economy.
93
Which Catholic group continued to face suspicion and repression in **Louis XIV’s later reign**?
Jansenists
## Footnote
They were seen as both theologically suspect and potentially disobedient.
94
Which mystical religious movement also faced royal disapproval in **Louis XIV’s later reign**?
Quietism
## Footnote
Quietism was condemned because it appeared to encourage passive spirituality outside acceptable orthodoxy.
95
# True or False:
**Quietists** were encouraged by Louis XIV as loyal defenders of royal Catholicism.
False
## Footnote
Quietism was viewed with suspicion and condemned as religiously dangerous.
96
What broad religious aim linked Louis XIV’s policies towards **Huguenots, Jansenists and Quietists**?
Religious uniformity
## Footnote
He believed unity in religion would strengthen obedience and order.
97
What social condition created pressure from below in **late seventeenth-century France**?
Deep social divisions
## Footnote
Privilege, poverty and uneven burdens sharpened resentment between groups.
98
Why did the **regions** sometimes create problems for royal government?
France was unevenly governed.
## Footnote
Different laws, privileges and traditions made central control harder to impose consistently.
99
What sort of reaction sometimes emerged from **common people** under late Louis XIV?
Popular protest
## Footnote
Protest could erupt over taxation, food shortages, conscription or local grievances.
100
# Fill in the blank:
Discontent in Louis XIV’s later reign sometimes erupted into popular _\_\_\_\_.
protests
## Footnote
These protests reflected economic strain and resentment of royal demands.
101
What did **‘pressures from below’** mainly refer to in Louis XIV’s later reign?
Popular discontent
## Footnote
It described unrest arising from ordinary people and local communities rather than elite politics.
102
Why could **regional differences** weaken royal authority?
They encouraged resistance to centralisation.
## Footnote
Local privileges and traditions often clashed with the monarchy’s drive for uniform control.
103
# True or False:
Social tensions disappeared in France once Louis XIV established **absolutism**.
False
## Footnote
Beneath the image of order, inequality and hardship continued to generate unrest.
104
Which rival leader posed the main challenge to Louis XIV after 1688?
William of Orange
## Footnote
William became central to efforts to resist French expansion after the Glorious Revolution.
105
What important event in 1688 strengthened opposition to **Louis XIV**?
The Glorious Revolution
## Footnote
William’s accession in England transformed the balance of power against France.
106
What alliance emerged after 1688 that greatly threatened Louis XIV?
The Dutch-English alliance
## Footnote
England’s resources were now combined with Dutch resistance to French power.
107
Why was the **Dutch-English alliance** especially dangerous for France?
It united major maritime and financial strength.
## Footnote
The alliance gave anti-French powers greater military, naval and fiscal resources.
108
# Fill in the blank:
After 1688, William of Orange could draw on both Dutch and _\_\_\_\_ resources against France.
English
## Footnote
This made resistance to Louis XIV broader and more effective.
109
What was the **League of Augsburg** designed to do?
Resist French expansion
## Footnote
It brought together powers alarmed by Louis XIV’s aggressive policies.
110
Which broader coalition grew from this resistance to France in the late 1680s?
The Grand Alliance
## Footnote
It united several states that feared the threat posed by Bourbon power.
111
Which three major forces were associated with the **anti-French alliance** in this period?
Protestant states, the Empire and Spain
## Footnote
Opposition to France crossed confessional and dynastic lines when interests aligned.
112
# True or False:
The **Grand Alliance** was created mainly to support Louis XIV’s territorial claims.
False
## Footnote
It was formed to contain and roll back French power.
113
What war broke out as a result of these mounting tensions in 1688?
The Nine Years War
## Footnote
It was a major European conflict fought across several theatres.
114
What was the main cause of the **Nine Years War**?
Opposition to French expansion
## Footnote
Louis XIV’s aggressive policies convinced other powers to unite against him.
115
In which main continent was the **Nine Years War** chiefly fought?
Europe
## Footnote
Major campaigns took place in the Low Countries, Germany, Italy and elsewhere.
116
Besides Europe, name one wider theatre of the **Nine Years War**.
North America
## Footnote
The war also spread to the Caribbean and Asia, showing its global reach.
117
What does the global spread of the **Nine Years War** suggest about late seventeenth-century conflict?
European rivalries increasingly extended into colonial and commercial competition overseas.
118
Which 1697 peace settlement ended the **Nine Years War**?
The Peace of Ryswick
## Footnote
The treaty brought a pause in conflict but did not remove deeper tensions.
119
# Fill in the blank:
The Nine Years War ended in 1697 with the Peace of _\_\_\_\_.
Ryswick
## Footnote
Although war ended, the rivalry between France and its enemies remained unresolved.
120
What did the **Peace of Ryswick** reveal about France’s position by 1697?
France was checked.
## Footnote
Louis XIV remained powerful, but he could no longer dominate Europe as easily as before.
121
By 1697, how had years of war affected **France’s resources**?
They were badly strained.
## Footnote
Prolonged conflict weakened finances, manpower and military endurance.
122
# True or False:
By 1697 France’s economic and military resources were **stronger than ever**.
False
## Footnote
The repeated demands of war had seriously worn down the kingdom.
123
What new diplomatic reality had emerged in Europe by 1697?
A balance of power against France.
## Footnote
Other powers were increasingly prepared to combine to prevent French supremacy.
124
Why did the end of the **Nine Years War** not guarantee lasting peace?
Major disputes remained unresolved.
## Footnote
Rivalries over territory, dynasty and influence soon led to renewed conflict.
125
Which succession issue dominated **European politics** after 1697?
the Spanish Succession
## Footnote
The fate of the Spanish Empire threatened to upset the European balance.
126
Why was the **Spanish Succession** so important to Louis XIV?
It offered Bourbon advantage.
## Footnote
A successful claim could greatly expand French influence.
127
Why did other powers react so strongly to French claims in the **Spanish Succession**?
They feared French dominance.
## Footnote
A union of Bourbon interests in France and Spain seemed a major threat to the balance of power.
128
What did the international response to French claims over Spain lead to?
War
## Footnote
Diplomatic tension escalated into the War of the Spanish Succession.
129
What major conflict began in 1701 over the **Spanish inheritance**?
the War of the Spanish Succession
## Footnote
It became one of the largest wars of Louis XIV’s reign.
130
# True or False:
The **War of the Spanish Succession** was fought only in Europe.
False
## Footnote
It also spread to North America, the Caribbean and Asia.
131
In addition to Europe, name one theatre of the **War of the Spanish Succession**.
The Caribbean
## Footnote
The conflict had colonial and maritime dimensions as well as European campaigns.
132
Which treaty is most associated with ending the **War of the Spanish Succession**?
The Treaty of Utrecht
## Footnote
Utrecht helped redefine the European balance of power.
133
# Fill in the blank:
The Treaty of _\_\_\_\_ had a major impact on the European balance of power.
Utrecht
## Footnote
It curtailed French ambitions while reshaping territorial and dynastic arrangements.
134
What was the main diplomatic effect of the **Treaty of Utrecht**?
It limited Bourbon expansion.
## Footnote
The treaty prevented an overmighty union of France and Spain and strengthened the balance of power.
135
What did the **Treaty of Utrecht** show about Europe’s attitude to French power?
It had to be contained.
## Footnote
Other powers were determined to stop France from becoming overwhelmingly dominant.
136
How did Louis XIV’s **last years** compare with the earlier glory of his reign?
They were overshadowed by strain.
## Footnote
Military setbacks, financial hardship and succession anxieties darkened the final period.
137
What major dynastic problem troubled Louis XIV near the **end of his reign**?
The succession
## Footnote
Deaths within the royal family created uncertainty over who would rule after him.
138
# True or False:
By 1715 the succession to **Louis XIV** was completely secure and uncontested.
False
## Footnote
The royal line had been weakened, creating a sensitive political problem.
139
What happened to **Louis XIV’s will** after his death?
It was annulled.
## Footnote
Key provisions were set aside, reshaping the political settlement after 1715.
140
Which regency was formed after **Louis XIV’s death**?
The Regency of Orléans
## Footnote
Philippe, Duke of Orléans, became regent for the young Louis XV.
141
# Fill in the blank:
After Louis XIV’s death, the regency was taken by _\_\_\_\_.
Orléans
## Footnote
The new regency marked a transition away from the personal monarchy of the old king.
142
What did the annulment of **Louis XIV’s will** suggest about his posthumous authority?
Even the Sun King could not fully control the political settlement after his death.
143
What was one important part of **Louis XIV’s legacy** by 1715?
France was exhausted by war.
## Footnote
His reign left a powerful monarchy, but also debt, strain and unresolved tensions.
144
What was another important part of **Louis XIV’s legacy** by 1715?
France remained a major power.
## Footnote
Despite setbacks, France was still one of the strongest states in Europe.
145
What tension best sums up **Louis XIV’s legacy** in 1715?
Glory and weakness
## Footnote
His reign brought prestige and centralisation, but also war damage, debt and dynastic fragility.
A-Level History (WJEC - Eduqas)
flashcards
Decks in class (30)
# Cards
-
The Crusades and Religious Conflict102
-
Spain: Empire and Golden Age94
-
Tudor England: Politics and Religion92
-
Stuart Britain: Conflict and Revolution74
-
Russia: Absolutism and Reform73
-
Industrial Britain: Change and Reform111
-
Britain: Transformation and Society113
-
Russia: Revolution and Communism119
-
The British Empire: Expansion and Decline108
-
The USA: Emergence of a Superpower116
-
Germany: Political Change and Conflict110
-
Medieval England: Monarchy and Power136
-
Late Medieval England: Dynastic Conflict118
-
The European Reformation153
-
The English Reformation318
-
The English Civil War147
-
France: Absolutism under Louis XIV145
-
The American Revolution129
-
The French Revolution and Napoleon161
-
The American Civil War137
-
International Relations and Conflict100
-
Italy under Fascism140
-
Britain: War and Welfare157
-
Russia: Revolution and Stalinism183
-
Germany: Democracy and Nazism153
-
China: Revolution and Reform150
-
The USA: Society and Change135
-
The Cold War147
-
Modern Britain since 1950150
-
The Collapse of Communism156
