1
Q
Define:
scientific method
A
It is a general procedure which psychologists use for gathering and interpreting data.
2
Q
Define theory as it relates to research methods.
A
A well-supported, organized explanation of phenomena, built from repeated testing of hypotheses and consistent observations.
Unlike a hypothesis, which is a specific testable prediction, a theory integrates evidence into a broader explanatory framework.
3
Q
Other researchers must be able to replicate the results of an experiment to validate its conclusions.
What is replication?
A
It is obtaining similar results to a previous study using the same methods.
4
Q
What is hindsight bias?
A
Explaining why something happened after it has occurred.
5
Q
What is a controlled experiment?
A
It is where researchers systematically manipulate a variable and observe the response in a laboratory.
6
Q
Define:
hypothesis
A
A prediction of how two or more factors are related.
7
Q
How do researchers specifically define what variables mean?
A
Researchers use operational definitions to precisely describe variables in relation to their study.
For example, “effectiveness of studying” can be operationally defined with a test score.
8
Q
What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an experiment?
A
- The factor being manipulated is the independent variable.
- The factor being measured is the dependent variable.
9
Q
Identify the independent and dependent variables:
If we test the hypothesis that students who use Brainscape to study, rather than simple flash cards, will learn more (as measured by higher test scores), then what is the independent variable? What is the dependent variable?
A
- independent: method of studying (Brainscape versus regular flashcards).
- dependent: amount learned, as measured by their test scores.
10
Q
Define population as it relates to research methods.
A
It refers to all the individuals to which the study applies.
11
Q
Define sample as it relates to research methods.
A
A subgroup of a population that constitutes participants of a study.
12
Q
What type of sample should be used in research?
A
Larger sample sizes are ideal because they are the most representative of the population.
13
Q
Fill in the blank:
The amount of difference between the sample and population is called __________ _____.
A
sampling error
14
Q
Define random selection as it relates to research methods.
A
Every individual from a population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample.
15
Q
Which individuals are in the experimental group?
A
Subjects who receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.
16
Q
Which individuals are in the control group?
A
Subjects who do not receive any treatment or manipulation.
17
Q
Fill in the blanks:
Subjects who receive the treatment are part of the __________ group, while those who do not receive the treatment belong to the __________ group.
A
experimental; control
18
Q
What type of experimental design uses experimental and control groups?
A
A between-subjects design uses an experimental group and a control group to compare the effect of the independent variable.
19
Q
Which process is used to try to ensure there are no preexisting differences between the control group and the experimental group?
A
Random assignment is used to assign the sample participants into groups (e.g., experimental drug or placebo).
Random assignment means neither the experimenter nor the participants decide in which group the participants will be, and each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to a given study groups (e.g., treatment vs. placebo).
20
Q
Define:
confounding variable
A
- Any difference between the experimental group and the control group, besides the effect of the independent variable.
- a.k.a. third variable
- It makes the phenomenon at hand even more difficult to study because of complex interaction effects.
21
Q
List four types of confounding variables.
A
- experimenter bias
- demand characteristics
- placebo effect
- lack of counterbalancing
22
Q
Define experimenter bias as it relates to confounding variables.
A
This occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the results of the study influence the experiment.
23
Q
Define demand characteristics as they relate to confounding variables.
A
These are clues the participants discover about the intention of the study that alter their responses.
24
Q
Define placebo effect as it relates to confounding variables.
A
Responding to an inactive drug with a change in behavior because the subject believes it contains the active ingredient.
25
What is the Hawthorne effect?
Individuals who are being experimented on **behave differently** than in their everyday life.
26
What type of experimental design uses each participant as his/her own control?
A **within-subjects design** exposes each participant to the treatment and compares their pre-test and post-test results. This design can also compare the results of two different treatments administered.
27
What is a single-blind procedure?
Research design in which the subjects are **unaware** if they are in the control or experimental group.
28
What is a double-blind procedure?
Research design in which **neither the experimenter nor the subjects** are aware who is in the control or experimental group.
29
# Fill in the blank:
Single-blind procedures aim to eliminate the effects of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
demand characteristics
30
# Fill in the blank:
Double-blind procedures use a third party researcher to omit the effects of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_.
experimenter bias
31
How are quasi-experiments different from controlled experiments?
Random assignment is not possible in quasi-experiments.
32
What types of research are considered quasi-experiments?
Differences in behavior between:
* males and females
* various age groups
* students in different classes
33
# Define:
correlational research
* establishes a relationship between two variables
* does not determine cause and effect
* used to make predictions and generate future research
34
List three methods of data collection
1. naturalistic observation
2. surveys
3. tests
35
Which two conditions must be met for an experiment to be considered a true experiment?
1. The researcher manipulates the independent variable.
2. All participants are randomly assigned to the experimental and control condition.
## Footnote
So, for instance, a study that compares how men versus women do on a given task would not be a true experiment because it is not possible to assign people to group (gender). (This example would be a quasi-experiment.)
36
Define naturalistic observation as it relates to correlational research.
It consists of **field observation** of **naturally occurring behavior**, such as the way students behave in the classroom. There is **no manipulation** of variables.
37
What are surveys and why are they not always accurate?
* It is a type of correlational research.
* Questionnaires and interviews given to a large group of people about their thoughts or behavior.
* Individuals aim to be politically correct and socially accepted, leading them to give false answers.
38
Define tests as they relate to correlational research.
Research method that **measures individual traits** at a **specific time and place**.
39
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ studies start by looking at an effect and then attempt to determine the cause.
Ex post facto
40
What is the **difference** between the reliability and validity of a test?
* **Reliable – consistent.** When administered properly, does a test give similar results when used on different occasions?
* **Valid – useful, meaningful.** Does it measure what it claims to measure?
## Footnote
In order to be valid, a measure must be reliable. However, a measure can be reliable without being valid. For instance, imagine a scale that always reads 212 pounds, no matter what the weight is of the person who stands on it. That scale would be a reliable measure, but not a valid measure.
41
What is a case study?
* Detailed examination of one person or a small group.
* Beneficial for understanding rare and complex phenomena in clinical research.
* Not always representative of the larger population.
42
# What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method?
experiments
Strengths:
* determine cause and effect relationship between variables
* control over confounding variables
Weaknesses:
* no real-world generalizability
* expensive
* time-consuming
43
# What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method?
correlational research
Strengths:
* easy to administer surveys or tests
* inexpensive
* minimal time needed
* substantial real-world generalizability
Weaknesses:
* no control over confounding variables
* skewed or biased results
* establishes a relationship, not causation
44
# Define:
statistics
**Analysis of numerical data** regarding representative samples.
45
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ data include measurements, such as scores on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (behavioral example) or scores on the Magical Ideation Scale (self report example), that can be readily expressed using numbers.
Quantitative
46
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ data, such as clinical interviews, can be very descriptive and rich, but are challenging and ambiguous to interpret.
Qualitative
47
What are the four scales of measurement?
1. nominal
2. ordinal
3. interval
4. ratio
48
# Define:
nominal scale
Data that are categorical: Numbers have **no meaning** except for convenience as labels.
## Footnote
Examples:
Hair Color (possibly coded red = 1; grey = 2; black = 3; brown = 4; blond = 5...)
Political Party (possibly coded Democrat = 1; Republican = 2; Independent/Other =3)
Gender (Male = 1; Female = 2; Prefer not to reply = 3).
49
# Define:
ordinal scale
Numbers are used as ranks.
## Footnote
Examples:
The runner who wins the race is scored as 1, the runner who comes in second is scored as 2, the third is scored as 3, and so on.
50
# Define:
interval scale
Numbers that have a meaningful difference between them.
## Footnote
Example:
Temperature: The difference between 10°F and 20°F is the same as between 30°F and 40°F.
51
# Define:
ratio scale
Numbers that have a meaningful ratio between them on a scale with a real zero point.
## Footnote
Example:
Weight and height: If you weigh zero pounds, you have no weight. 100 pounds is twice as heavy as 50 pounds.
52
Would temperature of Celcius and Farenheit be measured on an interval scale or a ratio scale?
interval scale
## Footnote
If the temperature is 0°F, there is not "no temperature." There is not a meaningful ratio between values. 100°F is not twice as hot as 50°F.
53
What are descriptive statistics?
Numbers that summarize a set of research data from a sample.
54
# Define:
frequency distribution
An orderly arrangement of scores indicating the frequency of each score.
55
What is the **difference** between a histogram and a frequency polygon?
* A histogram is a **bar graph**.
* A frequency polygon is a **line graph** or a bell curve.
56
# Define and list the three types of:
central tendency
Measures of central tendency describe the most typical scores for a set of research data.
1. mode
2. median
3. mean
57
# Define in terms of central tendency:
mode
Most frequently occurring score in the data set.
58
# Define in terms of central tendency:
median
The middle score when the data is ordered by size.
59
# Define in terms of central tendency:
mean
Arithmetic average of the scores in the data set.
60
# Fill in the blank:
If two scores appear most frequently, the distribution is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
bimodal
61
# Fill in the blank:
If there are three or more appearing most frequently, it is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
multimodal
62
Which measure of central tendency is the most representative? The least representative?
* **Mean** is usually most representative, unless there are extreme outliers that pull the mean in a particular direction.
* **Median** is less sensitive to outliers, but is a weak statistic.
* **Mode** is the least representative.
63
# Define:
normal distribution
A bell-shaped, symmetrical curve that represents data about many characteristics, including the **distribution of many human characteristics**.
## Footnote
In a normal distribution, approximately two thirds of the population will be within plus or minus one standard deviation of the norm (mean). Approximately 95% of the population will be within plus or minus two standard deviations of the mean. Over 99% of the population will fall within plus or minus three standard deviations of the mean.
64
# Fill in the blank:
When most of the scores are compacted on one side of the bell curve, the distribution is said to be \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
skewed
## Footnote
Positively skewed distributions include a lot of small values and negatively skewed distributions include a lot of large values.
65
# Define and list the three types of:
measures of variablity
They describe the dispersion of scores for a set of research data.
1. range
2. variance
3. standard deviation
66
# Define in terms of variability:
range
Difference between the largest score and the smallest score.
67
What do variance and standard deviation measure?
Average difference between each score and the mean of the data set.
## Footnote
Taller, narrow curves have less variance than short, wider curves.
68
What is a *z*-score?
| (a.k.a. standard score)
* Allows for comparison between different scales
* Subtract mean from each score and divide by standard deviation
* Mean has a z-score of zero
69
# Define:
percentile score
Percentage of scores at or below a particular score between 1 and 99.
## Footnote
Example:
If you are in the 70th percentile, 70% of the scores are the same as or below yours.
70
# Define:
Pearson correlation coefficient
* statistical linear measure of the relationship between two sets of data
* varies from -1 to +1
* helps to make predictions about variables
71
# Name the correlation coefficient for each and describe the relationship:
1. perfect positive correlation
2. no relationship
3. perfect negative correlation
1. r = +1
**direct relationship:** as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the same
2. r = 0
**no relationship**
3. r = -1
**inverse relationship:** as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the opposite
72
What type of graph plots single points to show the strength and direction of correlations?
scatterplot
73
What is the term for the line on a scatterplot that follows the trend of the points?
line of best fit or regression line
74
What is the **difference** between a null and an alternative hypothesis?
* **Null** hypotheses state that a treatment had **no effect**.
* **Alternative** hypotheses state the treatment did **have an effect** in the experiment.
75
What is the **difference** between a Type I and Type II error?
* **Type I** errors, or false positives, occur if the researcher **rejects a true null hypothesis**.
* **Type II** errors, or false negatives, occur if the researcher **fails to reject a false null hypothesis**.
76
What is a *p* value?
it lets you know if the finding is statistically significant, i.e., the likelihood of the findings being the result of chance. The lower the *p* score, the less likely it is that the findings are due to chance.
## Footnote
In order for a finding to be considered statistically significant, the *p* score must be less than or equal to .05; in other words, a 5% or less likelihood that the finding is due to chance.
77
When is a finding statistically significant?
In psychology, a finding is considered statistically significant if the probability (alpha) that the finding is due to chance is less than 1 in 20 (p is less than or equal to 0.05).
78
What method statistically combines the results of several research studies to reach a conclusion?
meta-analysis
79
Why did the American Psychological Association (APA) implement ethical guidelines?
* Guidelines were set in place in the late 20th century to stress responsibility and morality in research and clinical practice.
* Dangerous and inhumane experiments such as Harlow's rhesus monkeys, Zimbardo's prison role-playing, and Milgram's shock test led to the implementation of rules.
80
What are the purposes of an Institutional Review Board?
| (IRB)
* Approve research being conducted at their particular institution.
* Require participants give informed consent after hearing the risks and procedures.
* Require debriefing of participants afterward with results of research.
* Require humane and ethical treatment of animal and human subjects.
81
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ psychology is practical and designed for real world application.
Applied
82
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ psychology is focused on research of fundamental principles and theories.
Basic
83
Who founded the first psychology research lab?
Wilhelm Wundt
84
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was one of the first psychologists to demonstrate that one could study psychological processes using experimental psychology.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
85
Describe the work of Oswald Kulpe.
Kulpe was one of the earliest experimental psychologists who performed numerous experiments to prove his "**imageless thought**" to try and combat Titchener's work and prove that there were some thoughts that did not have images to be analyzed.
86
Who was the first psychologist to introduce mental testing to the United States?
James McKeen Cattell
87
Who created the first intelligence test and what was its initial purpose?
Created by Simon and Binet in 1905 for the purposes of ranking the intelligence of French children to select for mentally retarded children.
88
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ was a term developed by William Stern, which describes the ratio between someone's chronological and his/her mental age.
Intelligence quotient
| (IQ)
89
Who authored the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test?
Lewis Terman
90
If I were to test a population of people taking care to sample a proportionate amount to the actual composition of the group, which kind of sampling would I be using?
stratified random sampling
91
What is it called when participants are paired based on similar levels of a potential confounding factor to eliminate its effect?
matched-subjects design
92
# Define:
counterbalancing
This is an experimental technique in which we make sure both the **experimental and control group** will experience both levels of the independent variable, just at **different times**.
93
Mary designed an experiment in which the groups were not randomly assigned and so the control and experimental groups were not the same, what kind of group design is this?
nonequivalent group design
94
# Fill in the blank:
If the results of my experiment are applicable to the entire population, my experiment is said to have \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
external validity
95
# Fill in the blank:
If I make inferences from a data set that go beyond the actual data points, this would be \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
inferential statistics
96
# Fill in the blank:
An \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is an extremely large or extremely small number that affects the measure of central tendency such that it is no longer accurately representative of the sample.
outlier
97
What are the properties of a normal distribution?
A normal distribution is represented by a **normal curve**. The scores will exist such that 68% of the scores are within 1 standard deviation of the mean and 96% of the scores will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
98
# Define:
T-score
Similar to a Z-score, a T-score sets up a curve such that the **mean is always 50 and each standard deviation is 10**. You simply convert each number to the T-score value for easy comparison and analysis.
99
What is the difference between a positive correlation and a negative correlation?
* A **positive** correlation is one in which if **one value increases, the other value will increase**.
* A **negative** correlation is one in which if **one value decreases, the other value increases**.
100
What does a scatterplot look like?
101
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_ is the line one draws on the scatterplot to best represent the relationship between the two values.
line of best fit
102
# Define:
factor analysis
It uses multiple sets of correlations to see which variable correlations cluster together to create a factor or group of variables which are presumed to be measuring the same value, based on their high rates of correlation.
103
Describe the **difference** between the null hypothesis and the research hypothesis.
* The **null** hypothesis states that there is **no relationship** between the two values tested.
* The **research** hypothesis states that **there is a statistically significant relationship** between the two values in our experiment.
104
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ is the level of certainty we wish to have that there is an actual relationship between the two values in an experiment.
alpha level
## Footnote
This is usually set at a 1 in 20 chance or an alpha level of 0.05.
105
Sandy rejected the null hypothesis and believed there was a relationship between phone numbers and math ability, when in reality, it was proved that there was not a relationship. What kind of statistical error did Sandy commit?
type I error
106
Bobby decided to accept the null hypothesis and decided there was no relationship between IQ and a healthy diet, even though there statistically was proof that there was a relationship. What kind of error did he commit?
type II error
107
# Fill in the blank:
The probability of making a type II error is measured by the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ level.
beta
108
Which statistical test should I use if I am trying to compare three different groups or more?
analysis of variance
| (ANOVA)
109
If I only have two groups to compare, which statistical test should I use?
T-test
110
# Fill in the blank:
Chi-square tests are used for data that is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ rather than numerical.
categorical
111
What is the most common way to perform a meta-analysis?
Gather as many sources about the topic as possible, examine for multiple themes, publish the results of the meta-analysis for the larger community.
112
# Define:
norm-referenced testing
A test in which one's score is compared to that of all of the other test-takers, such as "Brian's score is in the 66th percentile."
113
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ testing, rather than norm-referenced testing, determines how much information the test-taker knows about a certain subject, such as a history final.
Domain-referenced
114
What are three things a test must have to be reliable?
1. dependability
2. consistency
3. repeatability
115
What aspect of a test are split-half reliability, alternate-form, and test-retest methods used to establish?
a test's reliability
116
# Define:
validity
How much a test measures what it claims to measure.
117
What would be the best way to test content validity?
Examining the actual content of the test to make sure that it accurately and completely meets all of the facets of the construct that are being tested.
118
What does the face validity of the test show?
That the questions on the test will be asking questions that appear to ask questions about the subject of the test; this is the least objective form of validity.
119
What would be one way to to determine the criterion validity of the SAT?
Determine whether high scores on the SAT predict high GPAs in college.
120
# Define:
construct validity
How well the test addresses what you were trying to measure.
121
Name two kinds of construct validity.
1. convergent validity
2. divergent validity
122
What is the **difference** between aptitude and achievement tests?
* Someone's score on an **aptitude** test predicts **future** ability with training and growth.
* Someone's score on an **achievement** test shows how much s/he knows **right now**.
123
What would a personality inventory be likely to contain?
* statements about personality
* questions that assess likes and dislikes
* self-selected ideals
124
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ is an intelligence test specially designed for children.
WISC
| (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)
125
What are some special features of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory?
It has 10 clinical subscale scores, including a score for carelessness, faking, and distorting.
126
# Define:
empirical criterion-keying approach
This is a process for **creating test questions** in which the developers choose from thousands of test questions placed in groups to differentiate between sick and healthy people with a variety of scores.
127
Which test is the California Personality Inventory the most like and why?
The CPI is most like the **MMPI**, but is especially intended for test takers ages 13 to young adult.
128
What is a projective test?
A test with **ambiguous stimuli** that has a subjective scoring system because there are **limitless responses** that the patient can give to the presented stimuli.
## Footnote
Projective tests are highly controversial. Critics point out research demonstrating projective tests' lack of reliability and validity. Yet projective tests remain in use in clinical settings and used in legal and clinical decision making.
129
The Rorschach Ink Blot Test is a widely used projective test. Why is using the Rorshach Ink Blot Test a problematic practice?
Projective tests are highly controversial. Unfortunately, projective tests, such as the Rorschach, have been and continue to be used in making legal determinations, (e.g., custody) despite evidence that such tests lack validity for assessing mental health (e.g., the Rorshach overpathologizes, frequently mistakenly identifying people as having mental illness when they do not.)
## Footnote
For an in-depth discussion of the problems with using the Rorschach Ink Blot Test to assess mental health, please read [this resource](https://skepticalinquirer.org/2003/07/the-rorschach-inkblot-test-fortune-tellers-and-cold-reading/)
To view the ink blot images, please see [this resource](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach\_test).
130
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_ is a projective test in which the patient is given a series of pictures of scenes involving different people and is instructed to tell a spontaneous story about each scene.
Thematic Apperception Test
| (TAT)
## Footnote
The TAT was developed at Harvard in the 1930s by Murray and Morgan. Murray and Morgan used ambiguous images selected from magazines. Participants construct stories based on individually-presented images. The test was developed to assess personality.
In addition to personality, the TAT has been (and continues to be) used to assess personal growth and mental health. However, the TAT, like other projective tests, lacks both reliability and validity. Including the TAT in a test battery can, in some circumstances, introduce enough error that it reduces the battery's overall reliability and validity.
131
Which projective test was especially designed for children?
blacky pictures
132
# Define:
Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank
Forty sentence stems that the test-taker fills out with whatever comes to mind.
133
What are some **advantages** of using projective tests?
* Good for breaking the ice
* Some skilled clinicians may be able to use them to get information not captured in other types of tests. (maybe)
134
What are some **disadvantages** of using projective tests?
* Validity evidence is scarce; psychologists cannot be sure about what responses mean.
* Expensive and time-consuming.
* Other less expensive tests work as well or better.
135
What is the theme of the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory?
It is a **career placement** test based around the test-taker's **interests**.
136
What were Holland's six types of interests and occupational themes?
1. realistic
2. investigative
3. artistic
4. social
5. enterprising
6. conventional
137
What did Arthur Jensen propose?
Racial differences in IQ are genetically related.
## Footnote
**Important critique:** Jensen did not adequately address other factors, including the lack of culture-fair tests, epigenetic effects, and the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on educational opportunities and achievement. In addition, critics of Jensen's perspective note that he ignored research that was inconsistent with his hypotheses and Jensen misunderstood the nuances of heritability, resulting in Jensen making deeply flawed conclusions.
138
What are four factors that can undermine data quality?
* low precision of measurement
* the state of the participant
* the state of the experimenter
* variation in the environment
139
What is an a priori hypothesis?
It occurs if one has a predicted hypothesis about a relationship (and the direction of relationship) between variables prior to collecting data.
## Footnote
Findings based on an a priori hypothesis are considered stronger/more persuasive than findings based on a post hoc (after the fact) analysis. This is because a finding based on an a priori hypothesis is less likely to be the result of chance.
140
What are some strategies to help improve the quality of data you collect?
* Be careful!
* Use a standardized procedure or protocol
* Measure something that is important and engages participants
* When using multiple measures, be aware of order effects (Does doing A before asking B influence the answers for B?)
* Note anything unusual about the data collection. For instance, if a fire alarm goes off during data collection,or if the participant reports being in an unusual mood or unwell, make a note of it. Similarly, if you were collecting data on mood states the day after 9/11/2001, your data would likely have been impacted by participants' reactions to current events.
141
Name three things that can introduce error into our research.
**Culture**, **Biases**, and **Situation** strongly influence our Observations, Responses, and Behaviors.
## Footnote
Here is a helpful way of thinking about this issue: “…the assumptions you end up making as you try to bridge the imaginative gap are, of course, your own, and the most misleading assumptions are the ones you don't even know you're making.”
Douglas Adams & Mark Carwardine, "On Meeting a Gorilla." from _Last Chance to See_ (writing about when they went to see gorillas in the wild)
Try, in as much as you are able, to be aware of the effects of these on you.
142
What is the primary aim of statistics?
To rule out randomness or chance as an explanation.
## Footnote
Human brains have evolved to detect patterns. A by-product of being very good at pattern detection is that human beings are prone to sometimes perceive patterns, even when there are no patterns.
143
What is measurement error?
* A threat to research validity; it is the cumulative effect of extraneous variables.
* Often referred to as noise in the data and an error variance.
144
What are four different types of data frequently used in psychological research?
1. Self-Report
2. Life Outcomes
3. Behavioral Observations
4. Informant
## Footnote
**Self**-**Report** - the participants perceptions of himself or herself (e.g., data collected from surveys or interviews).
**Life Outcomes** - real life verifiable facts (e.g., criminal record/history of incarceration).
**Behavioral Observations** - observing a person's behavior (e.g., how a participant performs on a task, such as a Stroop test or an IQ test).
**Informant** - asking someone who knows the person to share their perceptions (e.g., asking a parent to describe his or her child's strengths and interests).
145
Shows vs No Shows (and others who refuse to participate)
In voluntary research, typically some potential participants refuse to participate. Other potential participants agree to participate then do not do so (no-shows).
Why is this a problem for voluntary research?
No-shows do not provide data, so they are not represented in the data and subsequent findings.
As a group, non-participants/no-shows probably meaningfully differ from participants. There may be relevant, important personality or demographic differences between these groups.
Thus, no-shows are a threat to study validity and the generalizability of findings.
## Footnote
(This is not an issue in animal research; lab mice do not have the option of deciding not to participate.)
146
What are “WEIRD” countries; why is this an issue?
**W**estern, **E**ducated, **I**ndustrialized, **R**ich, and **D**emocratic.
Most psychological research is conducted in WEIRD countries (such as the U.S., Canada, and the U.K.), so findings from such research may or may not generalize to other, non-WEIRD populations.
147
What is the law of large numbers?
The **larger** the sample size, the **more reliable and valid** the findings, assuming there is no significant sampling error.
148
What is the **difference** between a Type I error and a Type II error?
* **Type I** error occurs when a researcher **incorrectly concludes** that a result is significant when it is not (a false positive).
* **Type II** error occurs when a researcher **fails to detect a significant result** that actually exists (a false negative).
## Footnote
Psychological research tends to focus on working to avoid making Type I errors, although both are harmful.
149
What is a response set or response bias, and why is it problematic for researchers?
A response set is the tendency for a participant **to have a pattern** in how she or he **responds to questionnaire items or interview questions**, and this pattern or tendency occurs independently of the content of the items. Response sets are a problem because they introduce **systematic bias/error** into the data set.
## Footnote
What are examples? Some participants tend to say yes to researchers conducting an interview (an acquiescence bias), even when the answer is unknown, ambiguous, or even no. Other participants tend to give extreme answers. In some instances, cultural differences can lead to response sets.
150
What is an effect size?
It measures the **strength of a relationship or finding**, indicating how significant the observed effect is. It can be categorized as small, moderate, or large, depending on its magnitude.
## Footnote
One widely used and effective measure of effect size is **Cohen's d**, which helps quantify the difference between two group means.
151
What does it mean to have multiple outcome measures, and why is it important to design studies with them when possible?
It means using more than one method to assess a dependent variable. As long as all the measures are valid, employing multiple measures significantly enhances your ability to detect effects or differences in the study, providing a more robust evaluation of the findings.
## Footnote
If you want to test an intervention to treat postpartum depression, then you could use multiple measures, such as the BDI, a rating from a family member, and a structured clinical interview. If there is any problem collecting or interpreting a measure, having multiple outcome measures reduces the problem's impact. E.g., what if you used only the rating from family members, and it turned out that not all of the participants have a relative close enough to them to provide a valid rating?
152
What is a *p* value?
What is an effect size?
Whereas a ***p* value** conveys the likelihood that a finding is **chance**, (i.e., how likely the finding is real,) an **effect size** conveys how **big or strong that difference** between the groups is.
153
What are some arguments against using deception in psychological experiments?
* True informed consent is not possible when deception is involved.
* When does the deception stop?
* Harms the credibility of psychology
154
Why is deception sometimes used in psychological research, and what safeguards exist to protect participants?
Researchers sometimes use deception when collecting data to **prevent participants' awareness from influencing the results**. Deception is typically employed only when being direct could significantly bias the data. Its use must be pre-approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB), ensuring that the potential harm does not outweigh the anticipated benefits, and participants must be fully debriefed afterward.
155
What is a standard deviation?
A **measure** of how closely the **data in a sample** or **population** cluster around the **mean**.
The standard deviation is equal to the square root of the variance.
For a more in-depth explanation of standard deviations, see [this resource](https://www.khanacademy.org/math/probability/descriptive-statistics/variance-std-deviation/v/statistics-standard-deviation).
156
What does **item difficulty** refer to in item analysis?
The proportion of test-takers who answer an item correctly.
## Footnote
Item difficulty ranges from 0 to 1. A higher value indicates an easier question, as more test-takers answer it correctly.
157
# True or False:
A high item discrimination index indicates a question is effective at distinguishing between high and low performers.
True
## Footnote
The item discrimination index assesses how well an item can differentiate between test-takers who perform well overall and those who do not. Values closer to 1 suggest better discrimination.
158
# Fill in the blank:
Cronbach's α is used to measure the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of a test.
internal consistency
## Footnote
Cronbach's α assesses the reliability of a test by examining the average correlation among items. Higher values indicate greater internal consistency.
159
What is the main **difference** between Cronbach’s α and KR-20?
* **KR-20** is **specific to dichotomous** items.
* **Cronbach’s α** is used for **continuous or ordinal data**.
## Footnote
Both are measures of internal consistency, but KR-20 is used for tests with binary (right/wrong) scoring.
160
# Define:
Classical Test Theory
| (CTT)
A framework for **understanding test scores** based on the idea that each score is composed of a true score and error.
## Footnote
CTT assumes that every observed score is the sum of a true score and random error, emphasizing the importance of reliability and validity.
161
How does modern test theory **differ** from classical test theory?
**Modern test** theory focuses on **item-level data** and models the **probability of a response** given various item and person parameters.
## Footnote
Also known as item response theory (IRT), it allows for more precise measurement and analysis across different populations and test forms.
162
What are **norms** in psychological testing?
**Standards** derived from a large group used to interpret individual test scores.
## Footnote
Norms provide a context for understanding where an individual's score falls relative to a representative sample, aiding in meaningful interpretation.
163
Why is **standardization** important in psychological testing?
It ensures that testing conditions are **consistent** and results are **comparable** across different administrations.
## Footnote
Standardization reduces variability unrelated to the construct being measured, enhancing the reliability and validity of test results.
164
Name one **key component** that should be included in a test manual.
* Administration instructions
* Scoring procedures
* Normative data
* Reliability and validity evidence
## Footnote
A comprehensive test manual helps ensure standardized administration and accurate interpretation of test results.
165
What is test bias and how does it **differ** from fairness?
**Test bias** occurs when a test systematically **disadvantages** certain groups, whereas **fairness** involves **equitable** treatment and outcomes for all examinees.
## Footnote
Bias is a statistical property, while fairness is a broader social concept. A fair test minimizes bias and ensures valid results for all demographic groups.
166
What is the main **difference** between factorial and simple designs in psychological research?
* **Factorial designs** involve **more than one** independent variable.
* **Simple designs** involve only **one independent** variable.
## Footnote
Factorial designs allow researchers to investigate the interaction effects between multiple variables, providing a more comprehensive understanding of complex phenomena.
167
How do longitudinal and cross-sectional studies **differ**?
* **Longitudinal** studies track the **same** participants **over time**.
* **Cross-sectional** studies analyze data from participants at a **single point in time**.
## Footnote
Longitudinal studies are valuable for observing developmental changes and causality, while cross-sectional studies are efficient for examining differences across age groups or demographics.
168
# True or False:
Mixed-methods research combines qualitative and quantitative approaches.
True
## Footnote
Mixed-methods research integrates both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a more complete understanding of research questions, leveraging the strengths of both methodologies.
169
# Fill in the blank:
Single-case designs focus on the detailed examination of a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
single subject (or case)
## Footnote
Single-case designs are often used in clinical and applied settings to observe the effects of an intervention on an individual, allowing for detailed analysis and customization of treatment.
170
What is a **primary threat** to internal validity concerning historical events?
History
## Footnote
History refers to external events that occur during the course of a study that could influence participants' behavior or responses, potentially confounding the results.
171
What does the **maturation threat** to internal validity entail?
* changes within participants over time
* Maturation involves natural changes that occur within participants over the course of a study, such as aging or learning, which can affect the outcomes independently of the experimental treatment.
## Footnote
Maturation can be controlled by including a control group, which helps differentiate changes due to the experimental manipulation from those occurring naturally.
172
What are the **key components** of informed consent in psychological research?
* Purpose of the research
* Procedures involved
* Risks and benefits
* Confidentiality details
* Voluntary participation
* Contact information for questions
## Footnote
Informed consent is essential to respect participants' autonomy and ensure they understand what participation entails, allowing them to make an informed decision about their involvement.
173
# True or False:
Anonymity means that even the researchers cannot identify the participants.
True
## Footnote
Anonymity ensures that participants' identities are not linked to their data, enhancing the privacy and security of sensitive information.
174
What is the primary **difference** between confidentiality and anonymity in research?
* **Confidentiality** means the researcher **knows** the participants' identities but keeps them **private**.
* **Anonymity** means even the researcher **does not know** the participants' identities.
## Footnote
Confidentiality requires robust data protection measures to prevent unauthorized access, maintaining trust between researchers and participants.
175
# Fill in the blank:
Debriefing should include a(n) \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the study's purpose and methods.
explanation
## Footnote
Debriefing provides participants with comprehensive information about the study, helping to alleviate any potential misconceptions and offering closure regarding their involvement.
176
What are best practices for maintaining test security in psychological assessments?
* Secure storage of test materials
* Controlled access to tests
* Regular monitoring of test use
* Training for test administrators
## Footnote
Test security is crucial to uphold the validity and reliability of assessments, preventing unauthorized access and misuse that could compromise results.
177
List two potential consequences of test **misuse** in psychology.
* Inaccurate diagnoses
* Unfair treatment decisions
## Footnote
Test misuse can lead to harmful outcomes for individuals, including misinformed clinical decisions and biased employment or educational opportunities.
178
What is a **confidence interval** in the context of statistical analysis?
A range of values derived from sample data that is likely to contain the true population parameter.
## Footnote
Confidence intervals provide an estimated range of values that is believed to contain the population parameter with a certain level of confidence, usually 95% or 99%.
179
# Fill in the blanks:
In an ANOVA report, the notation 'F(2, 27) = 5.12, p < .05' indicates that there are \_\_\_ degrees of freedom for the effect and \_\_\_ degrees of freedom for the error.
2; 27
## Footnote
In an ANOVA report, the numbers in parentheses represent the degrees of freedom for the effect (first number) and the degrees of freedom for the error (second number).
180
# True or False:
In regression analysis, the coefficient of determination (R2) indicates the proportion of variance in the dependent variable that is predictable from the independent variable(s).
True
## Footnote
(R2) values range from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates no explanatory power and 1 indicates perfect explanation of the variability of the dependent variable by the independent variables.
181
What does **Cohen’s d** measure in psychological research?
* The size of the effect
* The difference between two means in terms of standard deviation
## Footnote
Cohen's d is a measure of effect size used to indicate the standardized difference between two means. It is important for understanding the practical significance of research findings.
182
How is η2 (eta squared) used in the context of ANOVA?
It measures the proportion of total variance that is attributable to an effect.
## Footnote
Eta squared is a measure of effect size for ANOVA that indicates the proportion of the total variability in the dependent variable that is associated with the factor under consideration.
GRE® Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (12)
# Cards
-
Biological: Sensation and Perception134
-
Biological: Physiological/Behavioral Neuroscience284
-
Cognitive: Learning117
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Cognitive: Language64
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Cognitive: Memory88
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Cognitive: Thinking63
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Social: Various Topics142
-
Developmental: Various Topics171
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Clinical: Personality135
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Clinical: Clinical and Abnormal206
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Measurement, Methodology and Other: History121
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Measurement, Methodology and Other: Measurement and Methodology182
